34.622, Review: Applied Linguistics, English: Moffat (2022)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-34-622. Mon Feb 20 2023. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 34.622, Review: Applied Linguistics, English: Moffat (2022)

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Date: Mon, 20 Feb 2023 20:51:48
From: Charikleia Triantafyllidou [ct620 at cam.ac.uk]
Subject: Second Language Use Online and its Integration in Formal Language Learning:

 
Discuss this message:
http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?subid=36870117


Book announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/33/33-2328.html

AUTHOR: Andrew D. Moffat
TITLE: Second Language Use Online and its Integration in Formal Language Learning
SUBTITLE: From Chatroom to Classroom
SERIES TITLE: Second Language Acquisition
PUBLISHER: Multilingual Matters
YEAR: 2022

REVIEWER: Charikleia Triantafyllidou, University of Cambridge

SUMMARY
In this book, Andrew D. Moffat investigates questions regarding the use of
online second language (L2) communicative activities and formal language
learning, focusing specifically on text-based Computer-Mediated Communication
(CMC). 
Chapter 1 presents the author’s rationale, aims and research questions.
Drawing on the permanently online and connected world we live in (Vorderer et
al. 2016), the author observes the potential of CMC offering learners from
various levels the chance for “authentic, meaning-based communication” (p. 1)
that surpasses geographical boundaries. Authentic input and communicative
abilities have indeed been central to L2 acquisition and teaching research,
while authentic materials and communicative competence are at the heart of the
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) which is widely
used by language practitioners who are within the target audience for this
book.
Moffat’s book has three main aims: to empirically explore the nature and scale
of online communicative activities L2 English users engage, to examine the
language these users encounter, and, finally, to connect these insights to
language teaching practices. The scope of the book is restricted by three
parameters: authentic communication, interactive activities of dialogic
nature, and medium of interaction -in this case, text-based CMC. While the
author acknowledges the overall regard of text-based CMC as a restricted
medium due to the lack of extra-linguistic features, text is chosen for two
main reasons: a) it is evident that text is often preferred by users over
other communication channels and b) there are social and communicative
functions unique to text-based communication (Yus 2011). The author explores
the breadth of EL2 CMC activities, the challenges faced by users in such
interactions, the unique features of the use of English in CMC, and the ways
in which relevant activities can be integrated into formal language learning.
Chapter 2 provides a detailed background on informal second language learning,
EL2 CMC, and complexity in language learning with an extensive review of
relevant frameworks and seminal theories in second language acquisition. The
first part of this chapter clarifies what we regard as informal, naturalistic,
or out-of-class learning (Spolsky 1989) and incidental learning (Marsick &
Watkins 1990), where learning is a by-product of some other,
non-learning-oriented activity. This distinction results in two “flavours” of
informal learning differentiated by two main manifestations: one is whether
informal learning is an activity or an outcome and the second is the
motivation of the activity and whether it is intended for learning or not. The
next section elaborates further on the distinction between learners and users,
describing them as situational roles and citing examples of learners shifting
to users in immersive language use contexts of immigration. A large part of
the second chapter concerns strands of research in informal second language
learning, how they are conceptualised, and how informal learning relates to
each one of them, with emphasis on intention and meaningful interaction.
Focusing on CMC in particular, Moffat draws connections between the meaningful
and authentic interaction offered by extramural L2 CMC and influential
theories of language acquisition, namely Krashen’s (1982) input hypothesis,
Schmidt’s (1990) levels of awareness (perception, noticing, and
understanding), and Svalberg’s (2007) language awareness. Regarding attitudes
in particular, the author expands on the L2 Motivational Self and Norton’s
(2013) notion of investment as well as her analysis of inequitable power
relations between L2 learners and speakers of the target L2. In what follows,
the author disentangles the various contexts of English language learning,
especially in terms of their social context and language exposure, and
outlines implications on language teaching. Considering the holistic nature of
language learning, Moffat describes Activity Theory (AT; Engeström 2015) as
the theoretical framework on which the research project of the book is based
and justifies this choice as AT enables the investigation of whether
individuals engage in L2 English CMC with the goal of learning the language. 
Chapter 3 explains the research methods used in this project. Contrary to past
qualitative research, this is a mixed-methods research project which collects
a large amount of data using a questionnaire with Likert-type rankings, but
also allows authentic perspectives to show through by including open-ended
questions in the survey. Additionally, quantitative and qualitative corpus
analysis is used to determine the unique linguistic features of the English
used in CMC, as well as the language knowledge that learners need to have in
this particular domain of communication. A synthesis of all this data is used
to address the ultimate research question of the book: how L2 English CMC
activities can be supported and integrated in formal language learning (p.
37). 
Chapter 4 explores the possible motives behind CMC language activities where
English used as the L2 to “interactively co-create meaning” (p. 48) within the
prism of functional approaches to language, which are particularly apparent in
the CEFR. Based on the AT framework, the author elaborates on the motives and
outcomes of language activities: meaning-making through interaction, which is
the primary sense-forming motive, and learning, which can be a secondary
sense-forming motive or a motive-stimulus. Apart from positive
motives-stimuli, communicative apprehension (CA) may emerge as a negative
motive-stimulus which can act as an affective filter negative impacting
language acquisition. The chapter then outlines the construction of the
questionnaire and the data derived with regard to respondents’ (dis)comfort in
online interactions. A major finding is that there is significant overlap
between offline and online activities, showing how virtual and in-person (or
“real”) worlds can longer be strictly dichotomised. Moreover, the data
suggests that digital spaces are perceived as safer for lower-level L2
speakers. The findings also show that evaluative activities (i.e., those
relating to arguing and expressing opinions) induce the highest level of
discomfort, except for the 18-21-year-old age group, which, being accustomed
to such stance-taking activities, finds them “very comfortable”. The most
noteworthy finding in this chapter, which also has implications for models
such as Kachru’s (1985) circles, is that respondents in institutional
countries, where English has an official status or is used in bureaucracy and
commerce, engage the most in online activities and feel the least discomfort,
even compared to countries where English is the dominant language.
Chapter 5 approaches two aspects of CMC addressed in the questionnaire: the
socially and technologically described contexts of CMC interactions and the
attitudes of respondents regarding EL2 CMC in formal learning. In discussing
the former, the author presents relevant frameworks of CMC classification,
which is done based on technological and social aspects, as seen, for example,
in Herring’s (2007) classificatory system. The author also provides a
background on synchronicity, beyond the strictly technical
synchronous-asynchronous binary and adopts the view of synchronicity as a
situation factor setting expectations, rather than a medium factor. The above
are taken into account for the construction of the questionnaire, which
considers both expectations of synchronicity (e.g. high expectation of
synchronicity in a live chat room) and participant structure (e.g. a live chat
room involves all structures: speaker, participant, unaddressed participant,
and bystander). The results show large variation in EL2 CMC use based on the
type of CMC, with trends increasing based on language level and decreasing
with age. With regard to attitudes, the data suggests that learners find EL2
CMC interaction advantageous for their learning and show interest in using it
more directly in the classroom. Given these findings, the author points out
that, due to the significant learning outcomes that are likely to result from
EL2 CMC, it would be a “missed opportunity” (p. 88) for language practitioners
if they ignore this area of learning, but also highlights the potential risk
of compromising the extramural nature of CMC interactions.
Chapter 6 delves into the qualitative aspect of the research project by
investigating the difficulties encountered in EL2 CMC interactions as
expressed by respondents in the open-ended part of the questionnaire. In the
background provided, the author outlines several aspects that make the
“uncontrolled digital environment” (p. 90) particularly challenging, such as
the lack of support, the need for self-reliance, and the limitations of the
textual medium, all of which can result in negative feelings which then impede
learning. The thematic analysis of the responses uncovered various aspects of
EL2 CMC difficulties: inability to accurately express thoughts especially in
lower EL2 levels, non-standard language that learners may not have been
exposed to in formal learning environments, L1 interference, difficulty in
multitasking to employ external language support resources, the “authority” of
native speakers, and uncooperative or hostile interlocutors are the main
themes that arise in the chapter. A further quantitative analysis of the coded
qualitative data shows that difficulties dominate in synchronous chat, emails,
instant messaging (IM), and discussion forums. The data shows higher a
preoccupation with language and grammar skills than sociolinguistic competence
in lower levels and vice versa in higher levels, as well as largest effects of
location in dominant and institutional countries.
Chapter 7 examines three research questions regarding the ways in which
standard linguistic forms are used differently in CMC than in general English,
the differences in language use between different forms of CMC, and the types
of non-standard typography observed in online discourse. To answer these
research questions, the author embarks on an extensive and detailed corpus
analysis using the Cambridge and Nottingham E-Language Corpus (CANELC; Knight
et al. 2014) and the NPS Chat corpus (Forsyth & Martell 2007). The chapter
starts with an overview of Computer-Mediated Discourse (CMD) Analysis and the
debate of whether CMD most closely resembles written or spoken language, with
the author considering descriptions of conversational interaction and applying
them to CMC. The main classes analysed in the corpora are deictic markers,
verbs, conjunctions, and adverbs. The analysis shows that personal email and
SMS messaging are the most conversational forms, while business email show a
mixture of levels in formality and more “written-like” language features.
Non-standard typography was found to be most common in SMS messages and chat
rooms. The author also discusses possible implications for language in IM,
which is not contained in either of the corpora examined, by looking at
similarities and differences to SMS messaging. 
Chapter 8 brings together the findings from previous chapters and provides a
rationale and proposal for the integration of EL2 CMC activities in language
learning based on the language awareness approach (Svalberg 2007) while aiming
to maintain the extramural nature of such activities -a tricky balance also
mentioned in Chapter 5. The author justifies the proposed integration based on
both relevant literature and questionnaire findings regarding the perceived
benefits of EL2 CMC on language learning and the respondents’ interest in
understanding more about the nature of such activities and in integrating
relevant content in English textbooks. Moffat’s proposed integration has four
goals: to develop empowered participants in EL2 CMC interactions, to increase
motivation in formal learning, and to augment incidental learning outcomes in
EL2 CMC interactions, all while maintaining their extramural nature. The
integration is conceptualised as linked activity systems where outcomes feed
into a developmental cycle between chat rooms and classrooms. The language
awareness approach aims at making learners notice the benefits of incidental
learning in their EL2 CMC interactions and the salient language they use in
them. In order to achieve this integration, the author proposes a “show and
tell” model, based on consciousness-rising (CR) tasks whose goal is to advance
(meta)linguistic knowledge without the expectation of learners producing
target forms, and bridging activities that aim at developing learner awareness
via student-selected texts. The model encompasses discussion activities,
collaborative blogging, show and tell activities, and role-play. The proposed
activities aim at enabling learners to engage in more varied online
activities, preparing them for such interactions by developing their knowledge
of relevant language used in CMC, and enhancing motivation in the classroom.
The author also covers potential obstacles in the implementation of the model,
such as antisocial behaviour, highly controlled curricula, and ethical
concerns, among others.
Chapter 9 concludes the book by recapping the research questions addressed in
the book and providing succinct answers to them, while highlighting the
contribution of the book to understanding learners’ needs, supporting CMC
activities in language teaching, and enhancing broader academic knowledge of
extramural language use and learning. The author explains the limitations of
the research project and potential future research in the implementation of
the show and tell model, the investigation of unexpected findings regarding
institutional countries, ethnographic approaches to CMC interaction, and a
further investigation of learners’ EL2 CMC interactions and challenges
encountered.
EVALUATION
The book presents an outstanding piece of extensive and detailed research and
successfully achieves its objectives to explore the nature, scale, and
language of EL2 CMC in order to propose tangible ways of integrating such
activities into formal language learning. The research project described in
the book encompasses various methods bringing together corpus analysis and
survey-based quantitative and qualitative research. The book is aimed at
postgraduate students and researchers and it addresses this target group
appropriately by including a detailed theoretical background -one that could
even be of relevance to undergraduate students, especially in Chapter 2. I
believe that students and researchers in the broader fields of
Computer-Assisted Language Learning and L2 Teaching and those who are
specifically interested in Activity Theory will find this book well-structured
and comprehensible, as well as valuable for their own research. The author
goes into detail regarding aspects of research that are particularly relevant
to early-career researchers, such as social desirability bias in questionnaire
design, codification of qualitative data, and issues that arose in the
research project. 
The book is also aimed at language teachers; indeed, there is ample relevant
content in Chapter 8, as well as valuable insights throughout the book. I
believe that language practitioners might find this book a slightly daunting
read, given the large number of terms and acronyms used, which, albeit very
well-explained, may appear intimidating and impact the reading experience for
those who have never encountered them before. While the book mentions the CEFR
in some instances, as well as the impact of language level on the perceived
difficulty of CMC interaction, and general findings related to language level,
language practitioners might expect more explicit connections between CMC and
the CEFR. For example, one such opportunity arises, in my opinion, in Chapter
2, page 29, where the author discusses mediation, a concept highly relevant to
the most recent versions of the CEFR. That being said, the proposed “show and
tell” model is something that language teachers may find intriguing, as the
author makes feasible suggestions for classroom activities.
As the author acknowledges, the book contributes to the field of extramural
and informal learning (p. 192); in my view, it also provides a valuable
addition to the literature on Activity Theory and is a concrete example of its
application. Despite my perceived complexity of Activity Theory overall,
Moffat does an excellent job at breaking it down into coherent “units”
throughout the book. Generally, there are clear connections between theory,
research methodology, and the results presented in the book, which provides
early-career researchers with a blueprint of what high-quality research looks
like as a final product.
As I mentioned in my summary, the author outlines aspects of potential future
research, which I regard as highly relevant, especially with regard to
implementing the proposed model. I believe this would be particularly valuable
in the post-pandemic educational landscape, following extended periods of CMC
and online activities for a great number of language students. As students
return to face-to-face teaching, it would be interesting to see how their
online interactions can be further utilised in their formal language learning.
I would also like to add that the book sheds light on the lack of IM corpora
which, while ethically challenging, would be worthwhile for researchers in CMC
and beyond. Overall, the book opens up exciting research directions and
possibilities for teaching practices.
Finally, one aspect that I think the book would benefit from is a more
extensive analysis of the multicodality of CMC. While the author acknowledges
the multicodal nature of CMC with stickers, emojis, and non-standard
typography, a more in-depth analysis of the implications of multicodality for
language learning and teaching would be a beneficial addition to the book.
Specifically, I believe it would interesting to consider the semiotics and
relevance of GIFs, memes, widely spread reaction pictures, and short videos
(reels, TikToks) especially because they are currently an integral part of
CMC, while their meaning is often obscure and can only be accessed via
interaction with individuals belonging to specific social groups. I do
acknowledge, however, that this would have perhaps shifted the focus of the
book and that it would be difficult to obtain relevant data for analysis given
that there are no IM corpora available.
Overall, this is an exceptionally well-written, clearly structured book, with
invaluable findings and detailed explanations and justification of research
methods, something that postgraduate researchers may particularly appreciate.
REFERENCES
Engeström, Y. (2015). Learning by Expanding: An Activity-Theoretical Approach
to Developmental Research. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Forsyth, E. N. and Martell, C. H. (2007). Lexical and Discourse Analysis of
Online Chat Dialog. ICSC 2007 International Conference on Semantic Computing,
19-26.
Herring, S. C. (2007). A faceted classification scheme for computer-mediated
discourse. Language@ Internet 2007 (1), 1-37.
Kachru, B. B., Quirk, R., & Widdowson, H. G. (1985). Standards, codification
and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer circle. In R.
Quirk and H. Widdowson (eds) English in the World. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. 
Knight, D., Adolphs, S., & Carter, R. (2014). CANELC: constructing an
e-language corpus. Corpora, 9(1), 29-56.
Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition.
Oxford: Pergamon.
Marisck, V.J. and Watkins, K.E. (1990). Informal and Incidental Learning in
the Workplace. London: Routledge.
Moffat, A. D. (2022). Second Language Use Online and Its Integration in Formal
Language Learning: From Chatroom to Classroom. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Norton, B. (2013). Identity and Language Learning: Extending the Conversation.
Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language
acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 129-158.
Spolsky, B. (1989). Conditions for Second Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Svalberg, A. M. (2007). Language awareness and language learning. Language
Teaching, 40(4), 287-308.
Vorderer, P., Krömer, N., & Schneider, F. M. (2016). Permanently online –
Permanently connected: Explorations into university students’ use of social
media and mobile smart devices. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 694-703.
Yus, F. (2011). Cyberpragmatics: Internet-mediated communication in context.
John Benjamins Publishing Company.


ABOUT THE REVIEWER

I am a PhD Student in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics at the University of
Cambridge. I am currently researching the contribution of prosody to reading
comprehension in pupils who speak English as an Additional Language (EAL) and
the role of socioeconomic status in prosodic and reading skills. As an MPhil
student at Trinity College Dublin, I explored the potential benefits of
Computer-Assisted Language Learning applications and Text-to-Speech for
dyslexic pupils. I am interested in better understanding factors contributing
to reading difficulties that may have gone under the radar, in order to
improve the learning outcomes of disadvantaged pupils.





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