LL-L: "Kinship" LOWLANDS-L, 04.APR.2001 (04) [E]

Wed Apr 4 18:28:21 UTC 2001

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L O W L A N D S - L * 04.APR.2001 (04) * ISSN 189-5582 * LCSN 96-4226
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A=Afrikaans, Ap=Appalachean, D=Dutch, E=English, F=Frisian, L=Limburgish
LS=Low Saxon (Low German), S=Scots, Sh=Shetlandic, Z=Zeelandic (Zeeuws)
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From: R. F. Hahn [sassisch at yahoo.com]
Subject: Kinship

Dear Lowlanders,

I am currently preparing an introductory talk about varieties of kinship
terminology, which I will give at a special seminar in a couple of weeks.  I
am going to use material I compiled and used on previous occasions, but I
would like to infuse it with some new material, and I wonder if any of you can
help.

For those among you who are not familiar with it, let me briefly explain that
"kinship terms" are those names we use to refer to or to address relatives.
In many cases, two types of kinship terms are used: (1) those used to refer to
a relative (e.g., "This is my father") and those used to address a relative
(e.g., "I'm sorry, dad"), and sometimes these overlap (e.g., "This is my dad,"
"I am sorry, father").  By and large, the kinship terminology within a given
language reflects the kinship system with which the speakers of that language
grow up.  A "kinship system" is based on specific ways in which a kinship
group is structured within a given culture, determining the relationships
between relatives in terms of power and obligations, usually taking into
consideration generations and gender.  There is much variation among the
kinship systems of the world, too many to even briefly outline here.

In today's European and European-derived cultures/languages, there tends to be
relatively little variation in kinship terminology, and there has been a lot
of borrowing from one culture/language into another.  However, some remnants
of older local cultures can be found here and there, and such remnants offer
glimpses into local systems that once existed, especially specific, "unusual"
terms or the absence of terms we now take for granted.  For example, the
Scandinavian languages have no broad terms like "grandparent(s)" or even
"grandmother" and "grandfather;" they require you to be specific by using
terms that denote "father's father," "father's mother," "mother's father," and
"mother's mother," and this appears to reflect traditional importance of the
specific relationship/status of a grandparent.  American English offers the
use of the generic term "sibling" for "brother" and "sister," while
non-American English does not (at least not to my knowledge).  In English, you
can use generic terms in the singular: "sibling" and "parent," while in German
the equivalents _Geschwister_ and _Eltern_ only occur as plural forms.  I have
also noticed that certain relatives of one's parents' generation that
elsewhere would be referred to as "uncles" or "aunts" are referred to as
"cousins" by some Americans, or as a general term for distant relatives, while
elsewhere "cousins" is only used to refer to people of one's own generation,
namely to the children of one's parents' siblings or cousins.

Kinship terms originally used for blood relations often undergo extension to
people who are not related by blood ("fictive kinship").  This usually is a
device to symbolize intimacy or unity.  For instance, if you belong to certain
churches you may refer to or address a fellow member of the congregation as
"Brother John" or "Sister Mary."  African Americans often refer to or address
each other as "brother" or "sister" even if they have no close relationship
between them or do not even know each other (e.g., "Who's that brother over
there?" or "He'd never dare talk like that to a sister"), and this has been
taken up by some people who are not African American (only with reference to
African Americans).  It is common to many cultures that children tend to be
taught to refer to unrelated acquaintances, such as neighbors, as "Uncle" and
"Aunt(ie)," which creates an atmosphere of closeness and trust and at the same
time gives a child the signal that they ought to obey those people like
substitute parents.  In many of the world's cultures an older unrelated
person, even a stranger, may be addressed as "father," "mother," "grandfather"
or "grandmother" (e.g., _babushka_ "granny" and _dedushka_ "granddaddy" in
Russian).  When I was in Indonesia, I, as a Western male, was an _orang
belanda_ "Dutchman," and there was really nothing I could do about that.
Likewise, I could do nothing about the fact that I was addressed as _oom_
(Dutch for 'uncle') by everyone, including older people.  I hated it, and I
hated even more having to call waiters "boy" (yes, the English word), which is
a big "no-no" in the West these days.  I asked people to exempt me from being
called and call others in the manner of a gentleman of the _tempo dulu_, the
"good" old colonial times.  However, I was told that, if I liked it or not,
that was the only way I could fit into the local social structure, and I'd
better keep calling waiters "boy" or else be suspected of being a communist
... which is not a good thing.  So, in this context _oom_ ("uncle") has a
different, very specific fictive kinship shade.  I believe there are parallels
between this and Southern Africa of the apartheid era.

Where there is cultural and linguistic contact and fusing, kinship term
systems may undergo changes, usually are overlaid by foreign systems.  For
instance, the traditional German names for 'female cousin', 'male cousin',
'aunt' and 'uncle' are _Base_, _Vetter_, _Muhme_ and _Oheim_, but with the
beginning of the French fad in the 17th and 18th centuries these started to be
replaced by (_cousine_ >) _Kusine_, (_cousin_ >) _Kusin_, (_tante_ >) _Tante_
and (_oncle_ >) _Onkel_ respectively, and the old names are now archaic and
only known from old texts.

Another good example of this is Low Saxon (Low German).  In certain dialects,
the traditional name for the sister or female cousin of one's parent (i.e.,
'aunt') is _Mööm_ ~ _Möhm_ [m9.Im] or _Möösch_ [m9IS].  The male equivalent
(i.e., _uncle_) is _Oom_ ~ _Ohm_ [?o:m] ~ [?o.Um].  It is usual to say these
*after* the name, and _-en_ is added to the name where possible; e.g.,
_Hans-Ohm_ ~ _Hansohm_ 'Uncle John', _Greten-Möösch_ ~ _Gretenmöösch_
'Aunt(ie) Mag'.  _Tant_ [t`a.nt] 'aunt' and _Onkel_ [?O.Nk=l] ~ _Unkel_
[?U.Nk=l] 'uncle' came to be borrowed (from German rather than directly from
French, I assume), and these have been gradually replacing the traditional
terms, though not yet completely, I understand.  Unlike the traditional terms,
these new ones may precede names (e.g., _Unkel Hans_, _Tant Grete_), though in
some dialects they may follow in the traditional way (e.g., _Hans-Unkel_,
_Greten-Tant_).  It is my feeling that, at least nowadays, the traditional
terms can only be used for blood relations, probably also the other postfixed
forms (_Hans-Unkel_, _Greten-Tant_).  I feel that to address an unrelated
person with "uncle" and "aunt" one would use the "modern" constructions
(_Unkel Hans_, _Tant Grete_).  I may be wrong there, and there may be regional
variation.  Any input would be appreciated.

It so happens that the audience of my talk is currently dealing with two
European countries: Norway and England (with some reference to other UK
countries).  For this reason I would like to provide a few kinship term
examples from these two country with the addition of Scotland.  I know that
Norway is outside the Lowlands.  However, there are Low Saxon (Low German)
connections, and I wonder if in the dialect of the formerly Hanseatic port of
Bergen and surrounding areas there are special kinship terms (which may or may
not be archaic).  As for England and Scotland, I wonder if there are any
regional variations in kinship terminology.  Also, if anyone happens to have a
list of Old English kinship terms I would greatly appreciate a copy of it.

I have the following incomplete list for Old English:

môdor (mother)
fæder (father)
sweostor (sister)
brôðor (brother)
dohtor (daughter)
sunu (son)
snoru (daughter-in-law [etymology?])
(apparently no name for 'son-in-law')
(apparently no names for 'uncle' and 'aunt' -- "father's brother" etc.
instead)

How exactly were names for parents' siblings (ME 'uncles', 'aunts') and
parents' siblings' children (ME 'cousins') constructed?

Does anyone have an Old Saxon kinship term list?

Thanks for the help.

Regards,
Reinhard/Ron

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