[lg policy] class handout for a course on language planning/policy
Harold Schiffman
hfsclpp at GMAIL.COM
Wed Jul 6 14:03:24 UTC 2011
Chapter 15 - Language Problems, Language Planning, and Language Policy
The diversity of languages poses problems for governments, which must
devise plans for managing those languages. The results of such
planning is language policy.
Language Functions
Fasold (1984) proposes a system of language functions defined in terms
of attributes. By means of this system, official languages of the
world may vary, in that some have more of the attributes of an
official language than another.
Function
Definition
Sociolinguistic Attributes
used in speaking by
Standardized
Official
government officials,
Known by cadre of citizens
used for documents
Used by government officials
(laws, records, forms)
Declared official
Symbol of national identity
links populace to glorious past,
Widely used everyday and fluently spoken
Nationalist
unifies and separates,
No major alternative language
confers authenticity
Acceptable as symbol of authenticity
Link with glorious past
Group
allows for communication in a
Used by everyone in ordinary conversation
community, unifies and separates
Unifying and separatist function
allows for transmission of
Understood by learners
Educational
body of written knowledge
Sufficient teaching resources
Sufficient standardization
Wider Communication
used in interregional communication of scientific findings, procedures
Learnable as a second language
International
used for intergovernmental commnication
On the list of such languages (e.g., Arabic, Chinese, English, French,
Spanish, Russian)
School subject
serves as the object of study
Standardization equals that of native language of students
Religious
used to conduct rites
Classical language
Application of Fasold's system
Fasold applies this system to analysis of the functional
differentiation of Guaraní and Spanish in Paraguay. An adapatation of
that system is presented below. As you can see, Guaraní and Spanish
differ considerably in terms of their functioning. Another pesky
problem is the emerging diglossic system within Guaraní itself. There
is a considerable difference between spoken Guaraní and written
Guaraní, especially at the lexical level, where purists insist in
ridding the language of its large number of loanwords from Spanish.
Since the same label, Guaraní, can be used to refer both to spoken and
written, we have indicated those attributes where one or the other
medium is relevant.
The very first function, official language, reveals how it is that
two "official" languages can differ in terms of function. Guaraní is
co-official with Spanish, and yet the vast majority of governmental
functions is carried out in Spanish only.
As for the nationalist function, Guaraní and Spanish both evoke
mixed emotions. Both languages are viewed as necessary, but studies
indicate that it is Guaraní in particular that is viewed as critical
for national identity. If you cannot speak Guaraní, you are not really
Paraguayan, but if you know only Guaraní, you can still be considered
Paraguayan. Despite this attitude, Guaraní is still associated with
poverty and backwardness, illiteracy and ignorance. Spanish is seen as
necessary for access to power and the world beyond. On the other hand,
Spanish is the language of the conqueror, and language policy writers
have actually constructed an idealized, mythical past that plays down
the injustices of the conquest.
As for the group function, Guaraní clearly is the prerequisite for
national identity. Paraguay has been attacked from all sides during
its history, by Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay during the 1870s War of
the Triple Alliance, and by Bolivia in the 1930s during the Chaco War.
These wars served to rally public support of national identity, which
was symbolized by Guaraní.
With respect to education, Guaraní presents a special problem.
Note that there is a +/- next to "Understood by learners." The problem
is that the written form of the language is quite different from the
spoken form. This problem is less significant in early school years,
since everything is new for children anyway, and experts report that
children have no difficulty in learning the neologisms (new words
coined to replace Spanish loadwords in Guaraní). The real problem
comes with the teachers, who speak a Hispanized version of Guaraní and
struggle with the textbooks written in the purist version.
Guaraní is, without a doubt, a legitimate school subject in
Paraguay, and indeed it is possible to get a university degree in the
subject of Guaraní. There are university faculty trained in advanced
aspects of study of the language, and a small body of literature,
mainly theatre, poetry, stories, and folklore.
Although Guaraní was actually first written by Franciscans and
Jesuits, whose main purpose was to Christianize the indigenous
population in its own language, Spanish has largely replaced Guaraní
as the language of religion, even in rural areas. After the expulsion
of the Jesuits in 1767, the tradition of writing Guaraní and attending
mass in Guaraní gradually waned. It has not disappeared, however, and
may be on the rebound, especially in largely monolingual
Guaraní-speaking districts.
Function
Sociolinguistic Attributes
Guaraní
Spanish
Standardized
+ (written)
+
Official
Known by cadre of citizens
+/- (written)
+
Used by government officials
+/-
+
Declared official
+ (1992)
+
Symbol of national identity
+
+/-
Widely used everyday and fluently spoken
+
+
Nationalist
No major alternative language
-
+
Acceptable as symbol of authenticity
+
+/-
Link with glorious past
+/-
+/-
Group
Used by everyone in ordinary conversation
+
+/-
Unifying and separatist function
+
-
Understood by learners
+/- (written)
-
Educational
Sufficient teaching resources
-
+
Sufficient standardization
+/- (written)
+
Wider Communication
Learnable as a second language
-
+
International
On the list of such languages (e.g., Arabic, Chinese, English, French,
Spanish, Russian)
-
+
School subject
Standardization equals that of native language of students
+
+
Religious
Classical language
+/-
+
Language Problems - challenges to a country that are language-based
officialization of a widely-spoken vernacular
standardization of a vernacular
literacy education in a vernacular
Below are just a few of the areas for which language policy may
need to be developed.
government
legislative functions
executive functions
transportation (road signage, driver’s exams)
legal functions
policing
court
education
health care
business
advertising
broadcasting
publishing
communications
language determination - Defined by Jernudd in such a way as to be
concerned largely with language standardization as part of the process
of selecting a certain language variety or dialect as the official one
for use in education. Fasold (1984) expands the definition to include
selection of the national language, the symbol of a people. As such,
the language determined may have the following functions:
unifying function - the language serves as a rallying point that
members of a nation share
separatist function - the language serves to distinguish members
of a nation from another
participatory function - the language serves to communicate with
other nations, thus to participate in world affairs
language planning and standardization - Cooper (1982) identifies
three basic kinds of language planning.
status planning is recognition by a national government of the
importance or position of one language in relation to others, as well
as the allocation of languages or language varieties to given
functions.
corpus planning refers to activities such as coining new
terms, reforming spelling, and adopting a new script.
Ferguson defines three categories of development, all of
which are types of corpus planning:
graphization - adoption of a writing system, establishment
of spelling norms
standardization - establishment of a supradialectal norm
modernization - vocabulary expansion, development of new
styles of discourse which may include paragraphing, transitions,
summaries
grammatical intellectualization - a term coined by
Garvin, supposedly the development of "word formation techniques and
of syntactic devices allowing for the construction of elaborate, yet
tightly knit, compound sentences, as well as the tendency to eliminate
elliptical modes of espression by requireing complete construction."
These are merely stylistic changes.
acquisition planning is directed to language spread by increasing
the numbers of speakers of a language.
bilingual education - the use of two languages during literacy
development
submersion - literacy instruction in the student’s second
language, even if student is not competent in that language; declared
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court
structured immersion - literacy instruction exclusively in
the student’s second language; effectiveness dependent on quality of
curricular structuring and teacher training
bilingual immersion - literacy instruction largely in the
student’s second language, with supplementary literacy training in the
native language; considered necessary by some experts for reasons of
equity, but not considered more effective than structured immersion
transitional bilingual education - literacy instruction in
the student’s native language, with gradual phasing-in of second
language until replacement by about fourth grade; in practice
transition to English has been unsuccessful
maintenance bilingual education - literacy instruction in
the student’s native language, with gradual phasing-in of second
language until balance between L1 and L2 reached by about sixth grade;
strongly opposed by many groups; supported by Cummins as necessary for
bringing students to the minimal threshold for normal cognitive
development as well as the minimum threshold for cognitive benefits of
bilingualism
language policy - Cloonan and Strine identify basic kinds of language policy
Constituency-based language policy is determined by
legislation, is comprehensive, highly formal, directed at the language
population, and is shaped by pressures from the majority or a specific
constituency.
Example: English Language Amendment
State-benefit-based language policy is also determined by
legislation, is formal and comprehensive, is directed at the benefit
of the state, and represents a response to governmental concerns.
Example: Language of Government Act
Clientele-based language policy is determined by
administrations of governmental agencies, is not comprehensive but
rather ad-hoc and informal, and is shaped by administrative standards
and pressure from citizens for services.
Examples: Court Interpretation, Spanish-language
"mirandizing," bilingual education, foreign-language ballots
language planning agents - Who is involved in language planning?
national governmental agencies
Congress has introduced resolutions regarding the status of English.
Department of State has determined levels of language proficiency.
Immigration and Naturalization Service administers language tests.
national non-governmental agencies
Singapore Chamber of Commerce issued a language
examination and a manual for business correspondence.
US English, a non-profit organization with a lobbying arm,
has organized efforts in the US to make English the official language
non-national governmental agencies
California passed a law making English the official language.
In India, states choose the language of education.
non-national non-governmental agencies
Marlboro has undertaken a large billboard campaign in Spanish.
Shell Oil provides Malay oil terminology and engages in
language training.
The Catholic church eliminated the use of Latin in mass,
instead sanctioning use of the vernacular.
individuals
Noah Webster constructed a dictionary.
Luther translated the Bible into German.
Caxton introduced printing to England and was responsible
for much standardization of the written language.
John Tanton, ophthamologist and anti-immigration crusader,
helped found US English, an organization with over 500,000 members.
stages of implementation - How are language plans implemented? Fasold
summarizes language planning steps that are identified by Jernudd, and
Das Gupta (1971).
research: Identify sociolinguistic facts of a society.
Identify sociolinguistic challenges or goals.
planning: Propose answers, and alternative answers, to
sociolinguistic challenges.
Evaluate alternatives and choose one.
Design implementation of alternative. Identify means of
realizing the plan.
implementation: Execute plan. Carry out planning decisions.
feedback: Evaluate effectiveness of plan.
cost-benefit analysis - Often the consequences of language
planning have little to do directly with money. The consequences may
not be apparent for a long period of time after implementation of the
plan.
Identify economic consequences of the plan.
Quantify monetary consequences.
Evaluate consequences. Criteria for evaluation are often not economic.
linguistic and social factors in language planning - Haugen (1966) has
been widely cited for identifying four important kinds of language
planning. They are presented below, analyzed by their linguistic and
social criteria and the type of planning they represent
Type of Language Planning Activity
Status
Corpus
Planning
Linguistic
selection
codification
Criteria
Social
acceptance
elaboration
the naturalist approach to language planning- Harness natural forces
of sociolinguistic evolution. Identify social domain in which plan is
to be implemented. Planning in the H domain is much easier than in the
L domain because language use in the L domain is largely unmonitored.
Schmidt and McCreary (1977) show that changing informal patterns of
use is difficult, if not impossible. They tested high school seniors
and college freshmen for use of 'is' and 'are' in the sentence "There
______ five minutes left." Both groups used the singular form over
twices as much as the plural. Seniors in high school were fairly
accurate at reporting their incorrect use, slightly underreporting
incorrect use and slightly overreporting correct use. College freshmen
greatly overreported their use of the correct form and greatly
underreported their use of the incorrect form. Both groups knew what
the correct form was.
language planning cases - (summarized from Fasold 1984)
Tanzania - Germans ruled in Swahili; Missionary work in
vernaculars mildly successful.
Religions - Christianity 33%; Islam 33%; Traditional beliefs 33%
Languages - Swahili, a Bantu language, in Tanzania is a
nationalist language, and very successful, despite per capita GDP of
$260 (compare to U.S. $22,470); widely spoken, official since 1967;
egalitarian socialist state
Official variety of Swahili: Kiunguja, spoken in Zanzibar
Town, has less literature, chosen as standard, more related to local
languages
Other Tanzanian languages minor: Sukuma 12.6%; Nyamwezi
4.2%; 135 smaller ethnolinguistic groups
Kenya - British ruled in Swahili and English; missionary work in
vernaculars very successful; vernaculars strengthened
Religions - Catholicism 28%; Protestantism 38%; Islam 6%; Others 28%
Languages - Swahili has failed to be accepted as official
language; English used widely in government (English official until
1974); English confers competitive advantage; GDP of $335; recent
political upheavals.
Official variety of Swahili: Kimvita, preferred on the
southern coast; seen as inferior by up-country speakers; Kimvita,
spoken in Mombasa, used for Islamic literature
Other Kenyan languages have substantial populations:
Kikuyu 19.8%; Luo (a Nilotic language, not related to Swahili) 13.8%;
Luhya 13.1%; Kamba 11.2%
Ireland
Religions - Catholicism 95% (Northern Ireland 33%)
Languages - English - official, widely spoken by majority;
government is in English, courts and primary schools in English; Irish
(Gaelic) - official, 2% native speakers; laws are published in both
languages; popular Irish radio and television programs;, a few Irish
schools in the Gaeltacht (western Ireland)
Standard Variety of Irish
Connacht - largest dialect, now used as standard,
intermediate dialect structurally
Munster - dialect once favored by teachers
Donegal - third dialect
Attributes of Irish- indigenous; not associated with
independence; 20% claim it as second language; linguistically
unrelated to English; literary history over a thousand years old
Unesco Recommendations for Vernacular Language Education - Mother
tongue is to be used as long as possible for education of the child,
even if it is a vernacular. The recommendation regarding vernaculars
is controversial.
mother tongue - the language which a person acquires in early
years and which normally becomes his natural instrument of thought and
communication
vernacular - a language which is not official in any country and
which is the mother tongue of a group that is socially or politically
dominated by another group speaking a different language
Objections to the Unesco recommendations - Fasold (1984) says that
linguists would endorse the Unesco responses; however, a substantial
body of research indicates that the third response is not necessarily
true.
Lack of grammar, alphabet; Unesco responds that these can be developed
Lack of need to teach mother tongue; Unesco responds that the
language is used as a medium of instruction and literacy
Mother tongue education impedes second language acquistion; Unesco
responds that use of the mother tongue as a medium is a better way to
teach the second language
Vernaculars impede national unity; Unesco concedes this, but
insistence on a national language can actually cause resentment
(witness Kenya, India, Philippines)
Practicality - Unesco responds by mandating development in these
areas, and if not possible, make transition to another language as
late as possible.
Lack of textbooks and educational material
Lack of general reading material
Shortage of teachers
Inadequacy of vocabulary
Sociolinguistic barriers to vernacular language education - Fasold
(1984) presents another set of objections which are sociolinguistic in
nature and difficult to overcome.
Local linguistic diversity - Some children may be instructed in
another language (e.g., India).
National linguistic diversity - The country must teach in as many
languages as possible.
Use of lingua francas - Unesco does not recommend this use in
early education if children do not know the language.
Popular objection - Some people do not want the vernacular used to
educate children.
Benefits to vernacular language education - Social benefits may have
to outweigh psycholinguistic benefits of mother tongue education.
It is simply not possible to educate every child in his or her
mother tongue.
It is not axiomatic that mother tongue education is superior.
Criteria for vernacular language education (Fasold 1984) - use vernacular if:
Used for wider communication
Used by large number of speakers (10% or a million)
Has been developed
Is preferred by the group
Use of national language results in increased rate of failure (drop-out)
http://faculty.wwu.edu/sngynan/slx15.html
--
**************************************
N.b.: Listing on the lgpolicy-list is merely intended as a service to
its members
and implies neither approval, confirmation nor agreement by the owner
or sponsor of the list as to the veracity of a message's contents.
Members who disagree with a message are encouraged to post a rebuttal,
and to write directly to the original sender of any offensive message.
A copy of this may be forwarded to this list as well. (H. Schiffman,
Moderator)
For more information about the lgpolicy-list, go to
https://groups.sas.upenn.edu/mailman/
listinfo/lgpolicy-list
*******************************************
_______________________________________________
This message came to you by way of the lgpolicy-list mailing list
lgpolicy-list at groups.sas.upenn.edu
To manage your subscription unsubscribe, or arrange digest format: https://groups.sas.upenn.edu/mailman/listinfo/lgpolicy-list
More information about the Lgpolicy-list
mailing list