16.1860, Review: Lang Education: Holmberg, Shelley & White (2005)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-16-1860. Mon Jun 13 2005. ISSN: 1068 - 4875.

Subject: 16.1860, Review: Lang Education: Holmberg, Shelley & White (2005)

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1)
Date: 13-Jun-2005
From: Subhadra Ramachandran < sramachandran at net.clta.on.ca >
Subject: Distance Education and Languages: Evolution and Change 

	
-------------------------Message 1 ---------------------------------- 
Date: Mon, 13 Jun 2005 16:59:16
From: Subhadra Ramachandran < sramachandran at net.clta.on.ca >
Subject: Distance Education and Languages: Evolution and Change 
 

EDITORS: Holmberg, Borje; Shelley, Monica; White, Cynthia 
TITLE: Distance Education and Languages 
SUBTITLE: Evolution and Change 
SERIES: New Perspectives in Language and Education 
PUBLISHER: Multilingual Matters 
YEAR: 2005
Announced at http://linguistlist.org/issues/16/16-764.html


Subhadra Ramachandran, Centre for Education & Training, Mississauga, Canada

DESCRIPTION

This 342-page book is an edited collection of writings by both 
practitioners who have been active for some years in the field of distance 
education (DE) and by others from institutions where DE is at a relatively 
early stage of development. As a result, the contexts, education systems 
and educational requirements within which the authors of the chapters 
operate are diverse, their perspectives varied. Despite this, there exist 
several commonalities between the several DE contexts discussed in this 
book, which provide the reader with a range of insights and a better 
appreciation of the realm of virtual learning. 

The book is divided into six different sections covering themes that 
appear to be distinct from one another, but which in fact cover a great 
deal of common ground between the them.  The format of presentation allows 
readers to concentrate on subject areas of most immediate interest to 
them.  The six sections are:
1. Learner autonomy
2. Learner perspectives and support
3. Development of intercultural competence
4. Methodology and course design
5. Learning environments
6. Language teacher development

SYNOPSIS

1. Learner Autonomy
In this section there are three chapters devoted to the different aspects 
of learner independence and autonomy. 

In chapter 1, Stella Hurd reviews various interpretations of the concept 
of autonomy and its place within the field of distance language teaching 
and learning. Hurd also provides an insight into how language teaching at 
a distance has developed at the Open University, UK (OUUK) and draws on 
her experience to discuss how autonomy may be promoted via computer-
mediated communication while warning that technology mediated learning is 
not completely problem-free. 

In chapter 2, Linda Murphy too draws on her experience at the OUUK working 
with French, German and Spanish students to raise the question of whether 
a range of tutor-developed support materials is an effective way of 
increasing learner autonomy. She concludes that except in the case of 
writing skills development, there is strong evidence of learner control 
and active engagement with the study materials, and that students 
demonstrated critical analysis and reflectiveness. 

In chapter 3, Alex Ding from the University of Nottingham in the United 
Kingdom, explores the possibility for promoting collaborative learner 
autonomy through the use of a virtual, self-access centre (VSAC) for 
language learning. The context in which the VSAC was created was to 
provide English for Academic Purposes support for in-sessional students 
(international students studying at undergraduate and postgraduate level) 
who cannot attend classes. Ding concludes that despite the gaps between 
theory and practice in setting up his VSAC, it is important that theory be 
used as a basis for informed decision-making in this area, adding that 
researching the potential for collaboration in an online environment 
deserves to be investigated more rigorously. 

2. Learner perspectives and support
In the second section of this book contributions emphasize the importance 
of keeping the student as the focus of the process of successful distance 
language learning. 

In chapter 4, Cynthia White, from Massey University in New Zealand, starts 
off by reviewing four of the most influential theories of distance 
language learning. White draws on her earlier research into the ways in 
which learners establish their learning environment, negotiate meaning and 
arrive at new understanding in the distance context. In effect, she 
elaborates on the notion of the interface which develops between the 
learner and the learning context in the course of learning experiences. 

In chapter 5, Cristina Ros i Solé and Mike Truman from the OUUK focus on 
the importance of feedback in distance language learning where error 
correction and commentaries on assignments is often the sole channel of 
communication. The role of feedback in the development of student autonomy 
is spelt out and discussed.  The lon-standing debate over formative and 
summative assessment is illustrated here through the outcomes of research 
conducted among students enrolled in a Spanish course. Ros i Solé and 
Truman conclude by looking forward to the development of new assessment 
strategies and formats to enhance the experience of distance language 
learning.

Chapter 6 in this section is by Carisma Dreyer, Nwabisa Bangeni and Charl 
Nel of South Africa.  They look at one of the most universal issues that 
confront any program that offers language courses via a mixed mode 
delivery system - the problem of dropout and failure rates, and 
institutional accountability. The authors describe a framework for 
providing learner support that will aid institutions not just in improving 
dropout and failure rates, but in providing a high quality academic 
program with well-defined support structures. 

3. Development of intercultural competence
In chapter 7 of the third section, Monica Shelley and Uwe Baumann of the 
OUUK look at several student-related issues such as their motivations for 
language learning, their experience of the language and the effects of the 
course on them. However, the main focus of the chapter is on the 
acquisition of intercultural competence by distance learners of German. 
The authors conclude that while the students began their courses in German 
possessing a fair degree of cultural competence, this increased during 
their period of study.  They also conclude that the assessment of 
productive skills in the German course under review reflected the 
acquisition of those skills, attitudes and knowledge thereby showing that 
there was development of intercultural competence in the language being 
learnt. 

Chapter 8 of the section on intercultural competence is by Richard Fay 
(University of Manchester, UK) and Leah Davcheva (British Council, 
Bulgaria). The chapter discusses the lessons learnt from the 
implementation of two distance education programs for English language 
teachers and translator/interpreters in Bulgaria in collaboration with the 
University of Manchester in the UK. It discusses several aspects of the 
developmental context for the programs before exploring the area of 
intercultural communicative competence and then an evaluation of the 
language teacher program. The authors present a tentative model of 
professional intercultural communicative competence, which subsumes the 
cognitive, affective and behavioral dimensions of intercultural learning 
demonstrating how different definitions of intercultural communication fit 
with areas of language education.

4. Methodology and course design
This section consists of two contributions that reflect the theme of 
methodology from different perspectives. 

Börge Holmberg in chapter 9 discusses some theoretical aspects of distance 
language teaching and the methods and media applied in the teaching. 
Holmberg begins the chapter with a brief history of distance education and 
then summarizes the various theoretical considerations that need to be 
examined. Holmberg illustrates the significance of behavioral thinking in 
relation to language teaching with the use of examples based in different 
methodological frameworks. He supports the value of a combination of the 
learning of principles and imitative practice, concluding that the 
judicious use of the mother tongue is best used in contrastive analysis, 
and that explicit explanations have great value for distance language 
learners.

In chapter 10 of this section, Cecilia Garrido of the OUUK in studying the 
development of a suite of Spanish courses discusses the challenges of 
helping students develop linguistic skills while keeping in mind factors 
such as the implications of integrating intercultural competence into the 
course design, and the role of Information and Communication Technology 
(ICT) tools in developing these skills. Garrido lists the various 
priorities which were adopted to serve as a basis for the syllabus of the 
Spanish program. She defines the new challenges that arose while 
developing the distance learning program as mainly evolving from the 
implications of teaching language and culture in an integrated manner, and 
from the opportunities and threats of the information age. In this 
chapter, Garrido too briefly discusses the significance of teaching for 
intercultural competence. 

5. Learning environments
This section presents five different examples of learning environments 
that reflect the diversity and the variety of approaches taken to promote 
learner autonomy. 

In chapter 11, Donald Weasenforth, Christine Meloni and Sigrun Biesenbach-
Lucas from the United States argue the position that the technologies 
available to distance instructors can be effective in fostering learner 
autonomy. In this chapter, they investigate how three features of a course 
management software (CMS), namely Discussions (web board), Files and 
Testing, can be used to develop learner autonomy as well as language 
proficiency. They also show how CMS enabled their students to work without 
supervision, to become teachers and researchers, exercise choice and to 
benefit from feedback other than the 'right answer.' 

In chapter 12, Vincenza Tudini, from the University of South Australia, 
concentrates on the use of the chat tool by learners of Italian. Research 
has shown that computer mediated communication (CMC) such as online chat 
provides a bridge to face-to-face interaction and an optimal environment 
for language acquisition. However, research on whether chatlines replace 
classroom interaction or what skills learners can gain from the use of 
this medium is summarized in this chapter. Tudini concludes that chatlines 
have several proven benefits, including opportunities for the negotiation 
of meaning. Her study demonstrates that it is worth including chat lines 
as a learning tool when setting up language program language learners at a 
distance since they provide an opportunity for students to establish 
connections with each other in colloquial, non-threatening way.

In chapter 13, Andreas Schramm, from Hamline University in the USA offers 
an explanation of the ethnographic strategies used to move several courses 
of an on-campus ESL teacher education program to an interactive online 
format. In order to make this move from interactive student-centered 
classroom experience to a web-based format, Schramm focuses on the 
importance of establishing a set of standards for Web-based courses under 
groupings such as types of interaction and modes of interaction. He also 
describes the online implementation of each course component.

In chapter 14, John Milton from the Hong Kong University of Science and 
Technology focuses on the creative use of online tools to generate 
authentic language as opposed to imitative language that is often the norm 
in South East Asian classrooms. Milton has developed an indigenous course 
delivery system aimed at various groups of learners to meet their diverse 
language needs after having first researched different possibilities among 
the commercial systems available. He concludes that despite the promise of 
Internet technology, '... no ready-made content delivery system seemed to 
offer the range of activity types and tools that meet the Web's potential 
to create and deliver courses for dynamic language learning'. Milton's 
course delivery system  provided Web-based tools such as asynchronous 
voice messaging, online data-driven language learning, feedback on student 
writing and online role plays. According to Milton the tools, which have 
been  incorporated into an online course development system that supports 
several online EFL courses, lend themselves to progressive approaches to 
broader learning opportunities. 

In the final chapter in this section, Mirjam Hauck and Regine Hampel from 
the OUUK describe the progressive steps in the introduction of web-based 
audio-graphic conferencing system of tutorials for all language courses. 
This project first started with pilot projects and progressed to 
the 'online only' tutorials in a German language course. The Lyceum 
learning environment used has three main components: the audio-graphic 
conferencing client, a website and e-mail. The purpose of such 
collaborative virtual learning environments (CVLEs)in distance language 
learning is to provide students with opportunities to provide 
opportunities to develop interactive oral fluency in the target language. 
One of the next steps in the project is to investigate whether this new 
approach can lead to more efficient language learning and contribute to an 
increase in learner autonomy. 

6. Language teacher development 
Chapter 16 of the final section of the book is by Heidi Hansson (Umeå 
University) and Elisabeth Wennö (Karlstad University) from Sweden. In this 
chapter, Hansson and Wennö discuss their experience with the development 
of an online course for teachers of different practical subjects such as 
music, art, physical education and woodworking, etc., who wanted, in 
addition, a formal qualification to teach English. Based on a study 
comparing a group of distance learners with a group of students taking the 
courses face to face in the same period of time, Hansson and Wenno 
conclude that the results from the distance learners were at least as good 
as those who learned in the classroom. They compared the two groups on the 
basis of increase in the level of language proficiency and degree of 
interaction and took into account student views as well. Hansson and Wenno 
argue that the problems for distance courses are the same as those facing 
traditional courses. Therefore, factors such as individualized lessons, 
teacher feedback and support, peer-to-peer interaction amongst students 
and structured supervision and guidance are certainly factors that aid 
effective learning in general. Distance is not really the issue, but 
rather the available time and energy of the students (and teachers).

In chapter 17, Franca Poppi and Marina Bondi (University of Modena and 
Reggio Emilia in Italy) and Lesley Low from the University of Stirling in 
the UK describe a project that arose from a Europe-wide initiative to 
extend the teaching of modern foreign languages to primary age pupils by 
training more teachers to cater to this new demand. Several European 
countries responded to this initiative in many number of ways, but this 
chapter reports on a joint project involving universities in Italy and 
Scotland that led to the development of the PLEASE website (Primary 
Language teacher Education: Autonomy and Self-Evaluation). The general aim 
of the four-year project was to address the training needs of both new and 
continuing teachers engaged in the delivery of a foreign language to their 
primary school pupils. The rationale for the PLEASE website was to foster 
autonomous learning and reflective teaching skills among primary language 
teachers. The intention was also to raise the awareness of teachers' 
skills and to help their continuing professional development.  

In chapter 18, Do Coyle from the University of Nottingham in the UK 
provides an exploration of the development of a pilot network of Teaching 
and Learning Observatory (TLO) sites which can be used to enhance the pre- 
and in-service training of foreign language and bilingual teachers. The 
initial idea of the TLO was based on a need for language teachers to 
observe 'expert teachers' in their classrooms and for tutors to co-reflect 
and to experiment with distance teaching in 'scaffolded zones'. The TLO 
was set up to link a national and international hub of ten secondary 
schools with a training institution using video conferencing and other 
interactive technologies. In its early conception, the TLO was a non-
intrusive observation instrument and has now developed into an 'innovative 
practice hub', powerful learning, teaching, training and research tool. 
Coyle discusses how this evolution has come about emphasizing that 
innovative practice can often be uncomfortable, but to balance realism 
with vision.

EVALUATION

Rapid technological change is influencing not only ways in which we 
interact with the world, but also ways the world interacts with us.  It 
is, therefore, not surprising that the role of information technology in 
education is garnering such widespread attention. Technology-mediated 
education, as in but one conception of distance education, confronts us 
everyday not only in the form of computers in schools and classrooms, but 
also in the form of educational policies that are increasingly concerned 
with information technology in the 'information age', global 'knowledge 
economy' and the changing definition of literacy.

The edited collection of articles from institutions across the world (in 
Distance Education and Languages: Evolution and Change) is not only 
enlightening, but also serves as a crucial contribution to the field of 
distance education. The broad range of issues covered in the book is 
further enhanced by the fact that it delves into perspectives of both the 
learner and of the language teacher, providing the reader with a multi-
dimensional view of the subject matter discussed. The research studies 
touch upon important questions in the field of web-based language learning 
that have not been dealt with so far and opens up the readers' eyes to 
important issues that pertain to critical reflection, learner autonomy and 
learning environments. Answers to these questions are of great 
consequence, not only within the domain of distance learning, but also for 
fields such as general education or language policy, to name a couple of 
examples.

Even though the book covers a broad range of topics, it does not fully 
address the important issue of an expanded definition of literacy (Leu 
(2000); Meyer and Rose (2000)) in the digital/electronic environment, and 
the impact such a definition has on the teaching and learning of second 
languages. The concept of literacy as presented in the book still refers 
to literacy as the teaching of basic skills-reading, writing, listening, 
and speaking.  It fails to underscore a fundamental reality that besides 
having basic literacy skills, today's students also need technology skills 
for thinking, understanding, evaluating and communicating critically about 
messages inherent in new media. Literacy today also  implies being able to 
investigate, access and use information, and develop analytical thinking 
to discern meaning from an array of multimedia, visual imagery, and 
virtual environments, including written text. Hence, the definitions of 
literacy that emerge from these diverse skills expected of today's student 
are frequently categorized under information literacy, media literacy, 
critical literacy, computer literacy, digital literacy, etc. A separate 
section in the book could have been devoted to the discussion of whether 
these new definitions of literacy have produced new curricula, widened the 
general perception of literacy in language classrooms, or initiated 
ancillary subjects taught under the umbrella of literacy instruction. This 
section might have reported on studies in the area of technology-enhanced 
language learning and its practice and on the professional development of 
distance language teachers engaged in the development of multiliteracies. 
Some of the questions yet to be addressed are as follows: 
* Is there any empirical evidence to confirm that new technologies can be 
effective in support of literacy instruction? 
* Are any technologies, in fact, harmful to the development of successful 
literacy instruction? 
* In what ways has professional development of educators in literacy-based 
contexts been influenced by the advent of educational technologies? 
* What skills do language teachers need for integrating technology into 
literacy instruction? 

Answers to some of these questions may have made for some interesting 
discussion and provided grist for further research. However, the reason 
why empirical evidence to some of the above questions is unavailable may 
well be that even as researchers begin to describe evidence supporting the 
effects a particular technology on an educational practice, that 
technology itself is changing and in some cases superseded by newer ones. 
Valdez et al. (1999) aptly describes this as the "moving target" problem.

On the whole, however, the book is an excellent resource for anyone 
interested in the new possibilities offered by the delivery of technology-
mediated education, as well as for the educator exploring new innovations 
in educational technology and its applications. The studies presented in 
the volume discuss a number of methodologies, thereby providing examples 
of how to apply new technologies to support language development, and how 
educators themselves may use this for their training needs. The sections 
and chapters in the book are organized in a way that the reader has the 
option of taking advantage of previous chapters when reading about similar 
methodology or findings that can be compared and built upon, or focusing 
on subject areas that are of immediate interest to her/him simultaneously 
gaining a broader view of educational technologies in the context of 
language teaching used in different parts of the world. As a result, this 
book is also an indispensable addition to the educator's library as it 
would be a great tool for courses dealing with distance education. 

REFERENCES

Hedberg, J., Brown, C., and Arrighi, M. (1997). Interactive multimedia and 
Web-based learning: similarities and differences. In B. Khan (Ed). Web-
Based Instruction. Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, 
NJ, 47-58.

Huang, A.H. (1997). Challenges and opportunities of online education. 
Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 25(3), 229-47.

International Society for Technology in Education. (2000). National 
educational technology standards for teachers [Online]. 
http://cnets.iste.org/teachstand.html 

Kamil, M. L., Intrator, S. M., & Kim, H.S. (2000). The effects of other 
technologies on literacy and literacy learning. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. 
Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research: 
Vol. III (pp. 771-788). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Kamil, M. L., & Lane, D. (1998). Researching the relationship between 
technology and literacy: An agenda for the 21st century. In D. Reinking, 
M. C. McKenna, L. D. Labbo, & R. D. Kieffer (Eds.), Handbook of literacy 
and technology: Transformations in a post-typographic world (pp. 323-341). 
Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Leu, D. J. (2000). Literacy and technology: Deictic consequences for 
literacy education in an information age. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, 
P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research: Vol. III 
(pp. 743-770). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Meyer, A., & Rose, D. H., (2000). Learning to read in the computer age 
[Online]. Available: http://www.cast.org/udl/index.cfm?i=18 

Valdez, G., McNabb, M., Foertsch, M. Anderson, M., Hawkes, M., & Raack, L. 
(1999). Computer-based technology and learning: Evolving uses and 
expectations. Oak Brook, IL, North Central Regional Educational 
Laboratory. 

Wood, J. M. (2000) Literacy: Charlotte's web meets the World Wide Web. In 
D. T. Gordon (Ed.), The digital classroom: How technology is changing the 
way we teach and learn (pp.117-126). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education 
Letter. 

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Subhadra Ramachandran has a Ph.D. in Linguistics, and currently manages 
the distance education programs for the Centre for Education & Training, 
Canada. One of the programs offers free ESL courses at a distance to 
newcomers to Canada through the support of the federal government of 
Canada. Subhadra's research interests include theories of and the actual 
role of information and communication technology (ICT) in education, 
focusing on whether and how ICTs can be exploited to enhance the quality 
of learning.





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