17.928, Review: PhilosophyofLang/Textbooks:Hornsby&Longworth(2005)

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Subject: 17.928, Review: PhilosophyofLang/Textbooks:Hornsby&Longworth(2005)

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1)
Date: 16-Mar-2006
From: Magda Dumitru < magdalena_dumitru at yahoo.com >
Subject: Reading Philosophy of Language 

-------------------------Message 1 ---------------------------------- 
Date: Mon, 27 Mar 2006 16:28:37
From: Magda Dumitru < magdalena_dumitru at yahoo.com >
Subject: Reading Philosophy of Language 

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EDITORS: Hornsby, Jennifer; Longworth, Guy
TITLE: Reading Philosophy of Language
SUBTITLE: Selected Texts with Interactive Commentary
SERIES: Reading Philosophy
PUBLISHER: Blackwell Publishing
YEAR: 2005

Magda Dumitru, independent scholar

''Reading Philosophy of Language'' belongs to a successful series of 
introductory books to philosophy, offering a refreshing, hands-on 
approach to texts written by reputed scholars in the field. As editors 
Jennifer Hornsby and Guy Longworth mention in their ''Introduction'', 
the volume is intended for the use of students wishing to know what it 
means to do philosophy of language: ''Our aim has been to help you 
[...] pinpoint your agreements and disagreements with the texts, and 
to articulate your reason for agreeing or disagreeing.'' (p. 2). The texts 
alluded to belong to a different author each of them, and are 
distributed over six chapters. Every chapter includes three texts, each 
accompanied by an introduction (bio-bibliographic) and editors' 
commentary. The chapters are preceded by a ''Sources and 
Acknowledgments'' section and by an ''Introduction'', and are followed 
by ''Further Reading'' and an ''Index''.

The topics illustrated by the texts include the relationship between 
mind and reference, mind and action, and understanding and 
knowledge, as well as the mechanisms of non-literal meaning. The 
purpose of this review is not to offer a commentary on the original 
texts, but to discuss the job done by the editors in choosing and 
analyzing them. In the following, summaries will be given for the 
contents of each chapter, as well as a brief critical evaluation. 
The ''References'' section includes all the texts discussed in the book.

SUMMARY

Chapter 1 ''Reference and Meaning''
The excerpt from Book III of ''An Essay Concerning Human 
Understanding'' by John Locke introduces and discusses the 
implications of the thesis according to which words signify ideas that 
speaker and hearer share about real objects: ''Words being voluntary 
signs, they cannot be voluntary signs imposed by him [the speaker] on 
things he knows not.'' (p. 11). In his text ''Of Names'', John Stuart Mill 
employs 'names' to refer to both nouns and sentences. Mill proposes 
a threefold distinction of names: general vs. individual, concrete vs. 
abstract, and connotative vs. non-connotative. General names stand 
for ''an indefinite number of things'', while individual names 
are ''capable of being truly affirmed [...] of one thing'' (p. 19). A 
concrete name ''stands for a thing'', while an abstract name ''stands for 
an attribute of a thing'' (p. 20).The third distinction is the most 
important one, according to Mill: ''Whenever they [names] have 
properly any meaning, the meaning resides not in what they denote, 
but in what they connote. The only names of objects which connote 
nothing are proper names'' (p. 25). A connotative name ''denotes a 
subject, and implies a state'', while a non-connotative name ''signifies 
a subject only, or an attribute only'' (p. 22). The text from Gottlob 
Frege, ''On Sense and Reference'', discusses the famous 'identity 
puzzle'. According to Frege, identity may be either a relation between 
objects (e.g. 'Hesperus is Phosphorus'), or a relation between names 
(or signs) of objects (e.g. 'Hesperus is Hesperus'). The two example 
sentences have the same, unique reference, and yet only the first 
sentence is informative (has cognitive value), since to one reference 
are associated two different senses. The relation between sense and 
reference is the following: ''To the sign there corresponds a definite 
sense and to that in turn a definite reference, while to a given 
reference (an object) there does not belong only a single sign'' (p. 33).

Chapter 2 ''Speech and Action''
The central issue in this chapter is whether and how accounts of 
meaning may fit accounts of language use. The first author discussed 
is John Langshaw Austin, with a text on performativity. Although there 
are sometimes grammatical criteria that establish whether a verb is 
performative (e.g. 1st person singular present indicative active), the 
author considers that there may be other ways for evaluating 
utterances: felicity conditions. The second author discussed is William 
P. Alston, with a text on the relationship between 'meaning' 
and 'force': ''the meaning of a linguistic expression is to be elucidated 
in terms of the use of that expression'' (p. 64). Considerable 
discussion is also targeting the nature of language use and the 
distinction illocutionary/perlocutionary. The third text belongs to John 
R. Searle who acknowledges, with Austin and against Alston, that 
meaning and action ought to be separated. Searle discusses the 
notion of ''illocutionary effect'' on the hearer - reminiscent of Grice's 
notion of ''speaker meaning''.

Chapter 3 ''Meaning and Truth''
The chapter opens with a text from Donald Davidson where he 
introduces the notion of ''radical interpretation'' - which is to be 
discussed ''without essential use of such linguistic concepts as 
meaning, interpretation, synonymy, and the like'' (p. 96). A well-known 
adage of Davidson's is that ''meaning is truth-conditions'': ''[...] 
assuming translation, Tarski was able to define truth; the present idea 
is to take truth as basic and to extract an account of translation or 
interpretation'' (p. 101). The following text belongs to Scott Soames, 
who argues against a relation between meaning-facts and speakers' 
semantic competence: ''knowledge of truth conditions [...] is neither 
necessary nor sufficient for understanding a language'' (p. 118). The 
last text belongs to Crispin Wright, who maintains that there should be 
a closer connection between linguistic competence and Semantic 
theory: semantic properties of words and sentences ''must be 
grounded in speakers' intentions''. The chapter closes with an 
appendix offering an account of Tarski's theory of truth.

Chapter 4 ''Knowledge of Language''
The main issue discussed in this chapter is whether competence is a 
kind of knowledge or a practical ability. The excerpt from Noam 
Chomsky tackles this issue by establishing an innate, universal status 
of language knowledge: tacit knowledge, as part of the ''universal 
grammar''. Therefore language knowledge cannot be a practical 
ability; the use of knowledge belongs to ''performance'', while innate 
knowledge belongs to ''competence''. From Michael Dummett a text 
was chosen which qualifies knowledge of language as ''implicit'', 
intermediate between knowledge of facts and practical ability: ''There 
is no gap between knowing what it is to speak Spanish and knowing 
how to do so'' (p. 174). Welcome is also a discussion of two major 
views in philosophy of language: language viewed as a code (before 
Frege) and language as belonging to specific theories of meaning (in 
the analytical tradition). The last text is due to John Campbell, who 
embraces a ''robust view'' (which he calls ''cognitivism'') on language 
knowledge, considered to be ordinary knowledge. Understanding is 
not to be dissociated from structure perception: ''the knowledge 
constitutive of understanding relates primarily to words and their 
composition into sentences'' (p. 197).

Chapter 5 ''Meaning and Compositionality''
The main question put in this chapter is whether a compositional view 
on meaning is necessary for speakers' understanding of novel 
sentences. The first author discussed is Paul Horwich, who embraces 
a deflationary view on compositionality: ''Just as being water consists 
in being made of H2O, and just as redness consists in reflecting 
certain wavelengths of light, so the meaning property of 'dogs bark' 
consists in its construction property'' (p. 219). Semantic properties of 
words are not given in terms of truth-conditions, but by stating their 
meanings; again, compositionality is related to understanding. James 
Higginbotham's views in the text chosen are close to those expressed 
in the texts chosen from Chomsky and Davidson: semantic knowledge 
resides in tacit knowledge of a truth-theory by competent speakers. 
The text from Paul Pietroski argues against Horwich's account of 
meaning: ''[...] it doesn't follow that if you can associate each sentence 
of English with its meaning, you thereby understand English'' (p. 235). 
Pietroski maintains that a theory of meaning should be able to explain 
crosslinguistic generalizations, as well as the semantics of 
determiners, quantifiers and semantic relations.

Chapter 6 ''Non-literal Meaning''
Merrie Bergmann's text offers ''a theoretical account of the assertive 
use of metaphor'' (p. 252). She takes salience to be the landmark of 
metaphorical use: content is a ''direct function of salient characteristics 
[...] of the expression'' (p. 254). The metaphorical meaning of words 
and sentences is contained in their literal meaning, hence metaphor is 
context dependent. In his text, Martin Davies compares approaches to 
metaphor by Black and Davidson; he agrees with Black that ''we lack 
an adequate account of metaphorical thought'' (Black 1979, p. 192), 
but also with Davidson's view that ''what the metaphor prompts or 
inspires is not entirely, or even at all, recognition of some truth or fact'' 
(Davidson p. 253). The last author discussed, Kent Bach, supports a 
similar view of non-literality, namely that it must be a question of use. 
He further introduces the notion of ''impliciture'', present in sentences 
like ''Rich and Ann are engaged'' (impliciture: 'presumably to each 
other'). Bach thinks that sentence non-literality is a pervasive 
phenomenon, and defines implicitures as involving ''an unexpressed 
qualification on what is said'' (p. 291).

CRITICAL EVALUATION

''Reading Philosophy of Language'' is an excellent guide for students 
of Philosophy of Language of all levels, although some familiarity is 
assumed with certain concepts - 'truth', for instance, is used in the first 
chapter (the section on Frege), but discussed later, in the third. The 
texts are well-chosen, from a variety of sources (including radio 
performances), and are arranged both thematically and 
chronologically. The ''Reading Philosophy'' series has no pretense to 
exhaustivity, which may explain why landmark names such as Russel, 
Wittgenstein, and Quine are only briefly mentioned. Nevertheless, the 
goal of the book is served well by having a wide array of authors 
discussed, from 'sacred monsters' of Linguistic Semantics (Frege, 
Austin, Searle, Davidson, Chomsky) to famous philosophers (Locke, 
Mill, Dummett) and contemporary scholars (Alston, Soames, Wright, 
Higginbotham, Campbell, Horwich, Pietroski, Bergmann, Davies, 
Bach). Several authors make reference to other authors' texts, also 
included in the anthology (e.g. Davies refers to 
Bergmann); 'intertextuality' is also encouraged by some of the editors' 
comments, like those in the first chapter, for instance, where theses by 
Mill are compared to those by Frege and Locke. Interactivity is 
enhanced when editors give specific assignments in their commentary 
sections to the readers of the volume, asking them to form an opinion 
and argue for it. Commentary sections are well structured and 
detailed, although, at times, somewhat uneven - the commentary to 
Davidson, for example, is particularly clear, while the commentary to 
Chomsky is rather cursory, and the one to Dummett is essentially a 
summary.

Although people interested in either Philosophy or Linguistics may use 
the book, the main vocabulary used by editors is the one current in 
Philosophy of Language; only the averted reader will know, for 
instance, that 'meaning' and 'use' are studied by Semantics and 
Pragmatics, respectively. While a unification of the vocabularies 
proper to the two disciplines may not feasible, or even desirable, brief 
commentaries by editors on their interplay would have been a 
welcome addition.

Care was taken by editors to distinguish their notes from those 
provided by authors; for the sake of clarity, explanations are 
sometimes given in the very body of the commentary sections (e.g. the 
meaning of 'idiolect', p. 223). However, at other times, footnotes would 
be required, but are not offered (e.g. one may not know that 'ce' 
and 'être' are French words for 'this' and 'to be' respectively).

There are occasional style oversights, as in ''[...] it includes definite 
descriptions along with proper names proper.'' (p. 30), although typos 
seem to be a greater problem - ''his work in political and moral and 
philosophy'' instead of ''his work in political and moral philosophy'' (p. 
17); ''becalled'' instead of ''be called'' (p. 68); ''1'' instead of ''I'' (p. 
47); ''do do'' instead of ''do'' (p. 57); ''is distinct from he says'' instead 
of ''is distinct from what he says'' (p. 198); ''near x a t'' instead of ''near 
x at t'' (p. 304). Other typos are due exclusively to technical editing - 
misalignments like those on pp. 150, 206, 231, 270. All the 
shortcomings mentioned are however very small indeed; the great 
merit of the volume remains - that of inciting readers to make 
connections between the texts included, far beyond those offered in 
the commentaries, that may lead them to original and surprising 
conclusions.

REFERENCES

Alston, W. P. (1963) Meaning and Use. Philosophical Quarterly 13, 
pp. 107-124.

Austin, J. L. (1979) Performative Utterances. Philosophical Papers, 
3rd edn., pp. 234-252, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Bach, K. (2001) Speaking Loosely: Sentence Non-literality. Figurative 
Language, ed. by P. French and H. K. Wettstein, Midwest Studies in 
Philosophy XXV, pp. 249-263, Oxford, Blackwell.

Bergmann, M. (1982) Metaphorical Assertions. Philosophical Review 
91, pp. 229-245.

Campbell, J. (1982) Knowledge and Understanding. Philosophical 
Quarterly 32, pp. 17-29.

Chomsky, N. (1986) Knowledge of Language as a Focus of Inquiry. 
Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin, and Use, pp. 1-14, 
Westport, CT, Praeger.

Davidson, D. (1973) Radical Interpretation. Dialectica 27, pp. 313-328, 
Oxford.

Davies, M. (1983) Idiom and Metaphor. Proceedings of the Aristotelian 
Society 83, pp. 67-86.

Dummett, M. (1993) What Do I Know When I Know a Language? The 
Seas of Language, pp. 94-105, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Frege, G. (1980) On Sense and Reference Translations from the 
Philosophical Writings of Gottlob Frege, 3rd edn., ed. by P. Geach 
and M. Black, pp. 56-78, Oxford, Blackwell.

Higginbotham, J. (1999) A Perspective on Truth and Meaning. The 
Philosophy of Donald Davidson, XXVII, pp. 671-686, Illinois, IL, Open 
Court.

Horwich, P. (1998) The Composition of Meanings. Meaning, pp. 154-
183, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Locke, J. (1690) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Book 
III, Ch.1, secs. 1-4 and Ch.2, secs. 2 and 4-8.

Mill, J. S. (1865) System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, Vol. I, 
Book 1, Ch. 2, Of Names.

Pietroski, P. (2000) The Undeflated Domain of Semantics. Sats: The 
Nordic Journal of Philosophy 1, pp. 161-176.

Searle, J. R. (1969) Meaning. Speech Acts (Section 2.6), pp. 42-50, 
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Soames, S. (1989) Semantics and Semantic Competence. 
Philosophical Perspectives 3, pp. 575-596.

Wright, C. (1987) Theories of Meaning and Speakers. Realism, 
Meaning, and Truth, pp. 204-238, Oxford, Blackwell. 

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Magda Dumitru is interested in topics of Cognitive Science and the 
Philosophy of Language, such as definiteness, genericity, plurality, 
tense, and aspect.

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