36.3609, Reviews: Linguistic Landscapes: Jeffrey L. Kallen (2025)

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LINGUIST List: Vol-36-3609. Tue Nov 25 2025. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 36.3609, Reviews: Linguistic Landscapes: Jeffrey L. Kallen (2025)

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Date: 24-Nov-2025
From: Teresa Wai See Ong [ongtesa at gmail.com]
Subject: Jeffrey L. Kallen (2025)


Book announced at https://linguistlist.org/issues/36-2519

Title: Linguistic Landscapes
Subtitle: A Sociolinguistic Approach
Publication Year: 2025

Publisher: Cambridge University Press
           http://www.cambridge.org/linguistics
Book URL:
https://www.cambridge.org/universitypress/subjects/languages-linguistics/sociolinguistics/linguistic-landscapes-sociolinguistic-approach?format=PB&isbn=9781316628430

Author(s): Jeffrey L. Kallen

Reviewer: Teresa Wai See Ong

Title: Linguistic Landscapes
Subtitle: A Sociolinguistic Approach
Publication Year: 2023
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Author(s): Jeffrey L. Kallen
Reviewer: Teresa Wai See Ong
Summary
Written by Jeffrey L. Kallen, Linguistic Landscapes: A Sociolinguistic
Approach, contains eight chapters that provides a holistic
understanding of the development of the field of linguistic landscapes
using various methodologies and approaches with photographic evidence
drawn from three continents. The book contains a list of figures,
diagrams and tables, and ends with a reference list and index.
In Chapter 1, Approaching the Linguistic Landscape, Kallen describes
what constitutes as the linguistic landscape (or LL) and its role as
“a mediation between the sign instigator and the sign viewer” (Kallen,
2023, p. 4). He provides an overview of the common examination
aspects, such as code choices (related to language planning and policy
and language barriers), place names and the activity of naming.
Following that, Kallen describes the concept of space, which is
essential when understanding the LL. Additionally, he discusses the
discourse dimension in the LL including layout, typography, use of
colour, physical placement and visual imagery for written language(s),
and the interactions between spoken language and the landscape. He
also emphasises the importance of the historical dimension when
studying the LL.
In Chapter 2, Why Linguistic Landscape?, Kallen continues his
discussion by providing reasons why the LL needs to be studied. He
first describes the development of the field – from books to academic
papers – that kicked start its growth. He also mentions that writing
systems were first investigated and how they were linked to the study
of the LL in the modern age. Additionally, he points out that graffiti
and other elements of the LL have provided many analysis
opportunities; he points out the relationship between them and social
identity, language policy and globalisation. Following that, he notes
that Shohamy (2006) argues for the expansion of LL research to include
a wide range of materials other than fixed signs.
Chapter 3, Doing Things with Codes references Austin’s ([1962] 1975)
work How to Do Things with Words in order to discuss the question of
analysing the LL with codes. Kallen divides his discussion into three
parts. In the first part, he talks about choice and display of codes,
where he states that choice is usually influenced by language policy
and legal frameworks, but the language(s) spoken by the local
community also play a role. In the second part, Kallen focuses on
communicative outcomes based on the content of messages and code
choices. The third part shifts the focus to examining the integration
of linguistic codes with non-linguistic visual signifiers, where
visual elements act as an integral part of the message.
Chapter 4, Space and Landscape, concerns spatial relationships,
because the element of space has not received much attention in
comparison to the use of language. Kallen argues that LL units should
not be examined as physical objects only but as elements of discourse
where they create spatial relationship with physical and referential
properties. He first talks about the notion of space, which serves as
“a tool of thought and of action” (Lefebvre, 1991 [1974], p. 26). He
also emphasises that the notion of space brings out cognition and
affective values, and hence it should not be ignored. He moves on to
discuss the term landscape, using it to reference both space and a
view of that space. Many scholars have begun using ‘scape’ to
reference the broad field of LL research, in such words as schoolscape
and skinscape. Kallen ends the chapter by suggesting that any
mediation between sign viewers and sign instigators relies on
indexicality. Commonly, there are three levels of indexicality – HERE,
NEAR and THERE – and they create different spatial relationships.
In Chapter 5, People, Kallen argues that understanding the LL involves
a speech community due to geographical borders. Hence, he develops a
model of social indexicality (Kallen, 2023, p. 131), which pays
attention to the social value of communicative choices (local and
remote reference) in the LL. In the model, Kallen integrates the
notion of linguistic markedness and the importance of code choices
when offering affordances to the sign viewers. For the notion of
linguistic markedness, Kallen employs Myers-Scotton’s (1998a, 1998b)
Markedness Model,  where speakers choose one variety over another due
to the benefits of the variety chosen. For linguistic affordances,
Kallen references Gibson’s (1966) perception theory of psychology,
which states that “the affordances of the environment are what it
offers animals, what it provides or furnishes, for good or ill”
(Gibson, 1977, p. 68).
Chapter 6, The Linguistic Landscape as Discourse, emphasises on how
the LLs can become a symbolic site when discourses are taken into
account during analysis. Kallen shifts his discussion from the content
of LL units to LL artifacts by employing the notion of performance and
performatives. Performance is defined as “anything and everything that
happens” (Hymes, 1975, p. 18). For performatives, views from Austin
(1975), Searle (1969, 1976, 1979) and Bach and Harnish (1979) are
taken into account, as they offer different ways to understand the
various voices of the LL when engaging in a multiplicity of
performative speech acts. All in all, Kallen states that the features
of the LL – linguistic text, scriptography, visual imagery, colour,
medium and ground, and other emplacement features – should be studied
together because they contribute different meanings to achieving the
sign instigator’s communicative goals. He sums up that “the LL is not
a single system, but rather a confluence of systems, observable within
a single visual field but operating with a certain degree of
independence between elements” (Kallen, 2010, p. 42).
In Chapter 7, Time, Space, and the LL, Kallen incorporates into his
analysis Bakhtin's (1981, p. 84) notion of chronotope, which refers to
“the intrinsic connectedness of temporal and spatial relationships in
literature”. Most LL studies have looked at present-day data, but
there are a handful that employ past data to show the development of
the LL in a particular region. Each LL unit indexes a potentially
different NOW and THEN time, due to the discrepancy between THEN time
(sign instigator) and NOW time (sign observer). Kallen demonstrates
with examples of sites which have been abandoned and of the layering
of street names that marks historical origins. Therefore, he suggests
using past and present data to achieve a more holistic view of the LL.
In Chapter 8, Researching Linguistic Landscapes, Kallen wraps up by
stating that a member of the early LL conference panel commented that
one of the strengths of LL is that it has no theoretical framework. LL
scholars are free to employ any theoretical frameworks and
methodologies when investigating the LL. According to Shohamy (2019),
any methodology is legitimate as long as it addresses the research
questions and goals of the study. Hence, many questioned “What counts
as LL?” (Kallen, 2023, p. 248). Kallen (2023, p. 248) argues that LL
units are “entextualised, material performances of public discourse”.
This indicates that they are not strictly interpreted, and many have
been identified as objects of interest in relation to the public
display of language. Additionally, every sign viewer engages what they
see in their own interpretation. Kallen also addresses the concerning
issue regarding photographic and non-photographic evidence. Moving
forward, Kallen mentions the many regions in the world that are yet to
be investigated, the collaborations between different fields and the
wide range of materials and approaches that can be studied.
Evaluation
The field of LL, which began its seminal research in the 1990s (Landry
& Bourhis, 1997), has evolved over the years. In the beginning,
scholars examined languages on signage, including road signs,
commercial signs and street name plaques, mainly to understand issues
related to language planning and language policy, as well as
multilingualism faced by the communities. During such examination, the
roles played by sign instigators and sign viewers were crucial, as
they provided key points to understanding the studied issues. Code
choices, such as language, size, font, colours and placing (which
language appears before another language), were heavily scrutinized in
the examination. Some scholars further traced past and present
developments and compared the changes that had occurred in order to
provide a holistic understanding of the LL from a historical
perspective.
Gradually, in expanding the field, scholars looked into discourses in
different landscapes using various methodologies (qualitative and
quantitative) so that the LL can be understood as a dynamic part of
culture and society. Supporting such expansion is Pennycook’s (2019)
statement claiming that confining research on LL to coding choices is
a limitation that should be overcome with an explicitly semiotic point
of view. This broader sense of linguistics that goes beyond studying
lexis and grammar to evoke social analysis arises from historically
shared semiotic foci. These developments are captured by Kallen, in
this book, who emphasises the importance of space (THERE, HERE, NEAR)
and place (remote and proximal). He also reminds readers of the
significance of time when investigating the LL, as certain LL(s) may
be ghosted after a period of time while others may be repurposed for
‘new’ usage.
All in all, Kallen describes the developments of the LL, from past to
present, along with suggestions for the future. His emphasis in
studying the LL is that different theoretical frameworks and
methodologies that can be employed; and this is crucial for further
research, as it will inspire new collaborations between scholars from
various disciplines. Kallen’s examples and views are significant in
understanding the field of LL with depth and breath. However, the book
lacks examples from Asia, particularly South-East Asia, where many
studies have begun to be undertaken. Moreover, it would be beneficial
to have a summary at the end of each chapter to wrap up key points.
Nevertheless, this book deserves praise from those who have been
involved in the field, as well as those who are new to it.
References
Austin, J. L. ([1962] 1975). How to do things with words (2nd ed)
(edited by J. O. Urmson & Marina Sbisà). Harvard University Press.
Bach, K., & Harnish, R. M. (1979). Linguistic communication and speech
acts. MIT Press.
Bakhtin, M. ([1937–38] 1981). Forms of time and of the chronotope in
the novel. In M. Holquist (Ed.), The dialogic imagination: Four essays
by M. M. Bakhtin (translated by Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist)
(pp. 84-258). University of Texas Press.
Gibson, J. J. (1966). The senses considered as perceptual systems.
Houghton Mifflin.
Gibson, J. J. (1977). The theory of affordances. In R. Shaw & J.
Bransford (Eds.), Perceiving, acting, and knowing: Toward an
ecological psychology (pp. 67-82). Routledge.
Hymes, D. (1975). Breakthrough into performance. In D. Ben-Amos & K.
S. Goldstein (Eds.), Folklore: Performance and communication (pp.
11-74). Mouton de Gruyter.
Kallen. J. L. (2010). Changing landscapes: language, space and policy
in the Dublin linguistic landscape. In A. Jaworski & C. Thurlow
(2010), Semiotic landscapes: Language, image, space (pp. 41-58).
Continuum.
Kallen, J. L. (2023). Linguistic landscapes: A sociolinguistic
approach. Cambridge University Press.
Landry, R., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1997). Linguistic landscape and
ethnolinguistic vitality: an empirical study. Journal of Language and
Social Psychology, 16(1), 22-49.
Lefebvre, H. ([1974] 1991). The production of space (translated by
Donald Nicholson-Smith). Blackwell.
Myers-Scotton, C. (1998a). A theoretical introduction to the
Markedness Model. In C. Myers-Scotton (Ed.), Codes and consequences:
Choosing linguistic varieties (pp.18-38). Oxford University Press.
Myers-Scotton, C. (1998b). Calculating speakers: rational actor models
and linguistic choices. In J. H. O’Mealy & L. E. Lyons (Eds.),
Language, linguistics, and leadership: Essays in honour of Carol M. K.
Eastman (pp. 76-88). University of Hawai’i Press.
Pennycook, A. (2019). Linguistic landscapes and semiotic assemblages.
In M. Pütz & N. Mundt (Eds.), Expanding the linguistic landscape:
Linguistic diversity, multimodality and the use of space as a semiotic
resource (pp. 75-88). Multilingual Matters.
Searle, J. R. (1969). Speech acts: An essay in the philosophy of
language. Cambridge University Press.
Searle, J. R. (1976). A classification of illocutionary acts. Language
in Society, 5, 1-23.
Searle, J. R. (1979). Expression and meaning: Studies in the theory of
speech acts. Cambridge University Press.
Shohamy, E. (2006). Language policy: Hidden agendas and new
approaches. Routledge.
Shohamy, E. (2019). Linguistic landscape after a decade: an overview
of themes, debates and future directions. In M. Pütz & N. Mundt
(Eds.), Expanding the linguistic landscape: Linguistic diversity,
multimodality and the use of space as a semiotic resource (pp. 25-37).
Multilingual Matters.
About the reviewer
Teresa Wai See Ong is a Learning Support Specialist at the Singapore
University of Social Sciences, Singapore. She has widely published in
areas related to language planning and policy, linguistic landscape,
multilingualism and child development. At present, she is completing a
study that examines Singapore’s tertiary student learning needs and
perceptions.



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