34.2635, Review: Second Language and Heritage Learners in Mixed Classrooms

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LINGUIST List: Vol-34-2635. Tue Sep 05 2023. ISSN: 1069 - 4875.

Subject: 34.2635, Review: Second Language and Heritage Learners in Mixed Classrooms

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Date: 03-Jul-2023
From: B Dowling [bcdowling at wisc.edu]
Subject: Applied Linguistics, Language Acquisition: Bayona, García-Martín (eds.) (2023)


Book announced at https://linguistlist.org/issues/34.183

EDITOR: Patricia Bayona
EDITOR: Elena García-Martín
TITLE: Second Language and Heritage Learners in Mixed Classrooms
SERIES TITLE: New Perspectives on Language and Education
PUBLISHER: Multilingual Matters
YEAR: 2023

REVIEWER: B Dowling

SUMMARY

This book, composed of 13 chapters, introduces critical methods to
teaching K-16 content and second language classes where students come
from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. The contributors
are diverse as well, with authors from multiple continents, North
America, Africa, Europe, etc., and with a range of specializations,
including second language acquisition, language education, and
linguistics. The volume begins with an introductory chapter by
García-Martín, titled “Introduction: Addressing the Cognitive,
Affective and Sociolinguistic Challenges in the Mixed Language
Classroom.” This chapter helps the reader attain the general knowledge
and context needed to understand the book. It starts off with
background information and definitions of heritage learners (HLs) and
Second Language Learners (L2s). The two main goals of this book are
also presented, which are to “address the specific learning needs of
HLs in the classroom” (referred to in this review as goal 1) and to
‘foster linguistic empowerment by acknowledging the value of their
often-stigmatized language varieties” (referred to in this review as
goal 2) (Introduction: 5). Based on these main goals, the author
describes key themes across the chapters, which advocate the inclusion
of approaches directed at providing intellectual stimulation for HLs
in mixed language classrooms (MLC), and ways to promote validation of
the (sometimes many) language(s) which students speak.

The rest of the book is divided into four sections. Part 1 is titled
“Language Pedagogy: Promoting Student Engagement through
Differentiation” and has three chapters. Part 2 is “Sociolinguistic
and Psychological Investigations: Language Identity in Mixed
Classrooms.” Part 3 is called “Cognitive Approaches to Language
Learning: Metalinguistic Competency and Language Variation.” And Part
4 is “Plurilingualism, Translanguaging and Translation: Enhancing
Language Learning through Multilingualism.”

The first chapter is written by the other editor, Patricia Bayona, and
is titled “Bi-Directional Scaffolding: Heritage Speakers and L2
Learners Complementing Each Other in the Mixed Classroom.” She argues
for using what she terms “Bi-Directional Scaffolding” (Chapter 1: 13).
This framework recognizes the “expert” and “novice” roles both L2s and
HLs can assume in language classrooms based on a given linguistic task
(Chapter 1: 13). For example, HLs can be the expert for L2s regarding
pragmatic knowledge, while L2s can be the expert for HLs in terms of
metalinguistic knowledge. Through student surveys and teacher
observations, Bayona concludes that students from both groups benefit
from the complementary collaboration. Bayona’s Bi-Directional
Scaffolding not only empowers HLs (goal 2) by giving them the
opportunity to validate their linguistic intuition and share a wealth
of pragmatic knowledge with their L2 peers, but also furnishes a
solution to a need of HLs (goal 1) in the MLC, namely learning
metalinguistic knowledge from their L2 peers.

Chapter 2, by Ruben Benatti, “Advanced and Heritage Learners of
Italian in Mixed Language Classrooms: Methods and Strategies to Teach
Derivational Morphology,” discusses the derivational morphology
“mistakes” which both HLs and L2s make in his Italian language
classroom (Chapter 2: 32). The author analyzes a corpus composed of
writing assignments and discusses the different “errors” HL and L2
speakers make, before providing practical activities for the mixed
language classroom (Chapter 2: 37–46). These activities aim at
improving metalinguistic competence in Italian. Although the
activities are specific to Italian, activities such as Activity 1,
which asks students to create new words with a given suffix, could be
adapted to other languages. This chapter achieves its goal of
introducing methods to teaching derivational morphology but could have
benefited from directing more attention to HLs — a point which I will
refer back to in the evaluation section of this review.

Chapter 3, by Paola Guerrero-Rodríguez and Avizia Long, “Feedback in
the Mixed Classroom: What are Students’ Preferences and Perceptions?”
explores how both HLs and L2s perceive “corrective feedback” in a MLC
(Chapter 3: 51). They do this by analyzing classroom recordings,
interviews with target students, and questionnaires. Although the
authors found no major differences regarding student preferences for
different types of feedback, both prefer indirect feedback (e.g.,
providing a word hint), as opposed to direct or positive feedback.
This preference is related to students’ interest in being
intellectually challenged or, as one student in their study stated,
“work more for it” (Chapter 3: 61). They also found that HLs and L2s
have different reasons for preferring corrective feedback.
Specifically, HLs primarily viewed their language abilities as
improper, uneducated, etc., and thus wanted to be corrected in order
to sound proper or educated (Chapter 3). The authors offer practical
recommendations for how to help boost the linguistic confidence of
HLs.

Part 2 starts with “Bridging Gaps in Mixed-Class Settings,” by Marta
Ramírez Martínez. This qualitative study examines the opinions of both
HLs and L2s in the MLC. The author describes how HLs and L2s view each
other and how they view course content in a “content-based
instruction” language course (Chapter 4: 81). An anonymous
questionnaire at the end of the semester completed by both groups of
students showed that HLs and L2s enjoy being together and benefit from
content-based instruction. She concludes that both groups benefit: L2s
learn social issues they may be unfamiliar with, and HLs contribute to
discussions with their social and cultural input.

The second chapter in Part 2 is Chapter 5, “Dismantling
Raciolinguistic Ideologies: Más Allá del Aula de Herencia,” by Evelyn
Gámez and Mirna Reyna. This chapter details instructions for hosting a
professional development workshop to train teachers and administrators
to be “agents of sociolinguistic justice” (Chapter 5: 116). The
workshop introduces guidelines and tips for facilitators to utilize so
that discussions are specific to the cultural and social dynamics of
students. This chapter not only focuses on identifying the needs of
HLs, but also on promoting the language variety students speak in
mixed language classrooms as valid (Chapter 5). Spanish HLs, as well
as HLs across different language courses, are constantly criticized
for their speech being invalid, not having “prestige” or not being
“standard” (Chapter 5: 108-109). A form acceptable by speakers of a
given variety may be corrected by teachers following standard language
ideologies. This proposed workshop helps educators to recognize such
potential biases and to work towards solutions that create improved
equal classrooms.

Chapter 6, by Rosti Vana, “Countering Negative Attitudes toward
Heritage Students’ Spanish in Mixed L2-H2 Classes,” discusses the
linguistic discrimination that HLs face and proposes solutions for
educators to become more socially and culturally competent in their
teaching. Vana introduces methods for empowering HLs and improving
mutual and individual understandings of L2s, HLs, and their teachers.
For example, “critical service learning” allows students to be exposed
to everyday speech in a community, so that students can see variation
as a common occurrence, thus reducing stigma around HLs and their
speech (Chapter 6: 133). Another solution is implementing discussions
where the instructor, based on student survey results at the start of
the semester, leads conversations surrounding “sociopolitical
realities of speaking Spanish in the classroom” (Chapter 6: 137).
Resources to adapt these approaches for other heritage languages are
accessible as this chapter contains a syllabus, sample final project,
sample discussion questions, surveys, and other items.

Chapter 7, by Naraina de Melo Martins Kuyumjian, “Intercultural
Education in Early Childhood Education or How to Enhance Language
Learning and Social Cohesion in a Mixed Language Classroom,” presents
critical pedagogy methods and walks through steps of how to implement
activities that promote linguistic diversity in mixed classrooms. This
is the first chapter which does not make explicit reference to L2s,
HLs, or the mixed language classroom. However, the resources are
presented in a way which makes adapting the language awareness
activities in this chapter to a MLC quite accessible.

The first chapter in Part 3 is Chapter 8, by Justin P. White and Paul
B. Mandell, “Processing Instruction in Mixed Language Classrooms.” The
authors review input processing theories and argue for a pedagogical
framework called “Processing Instruction” (Chapter 8: 180). This
method targets “non-optimal default processing (language) strategies”
(Chapter 8: 192) because of incomplete acquisition, attrition, etc.
More specifically, White and Mandell focus on activities familiarizing
or activating HLs’ target grammar knowledge, so that HLs stay on task
and have similar linguistic output as their L2 peers (Chapter 8). The
authors present two activities, dream vacation and presidential
election, and show how they can be turned into “activity-to-task”
sequences (Chapter 8: 197). For non-Spanish language teachers, these
tasks can be adapted, but the common processing errors for different
languages will have to be researched.

Chapter 9, by Eftychia Damaskou, “Promoting Multilingual
Metalinguistic Awareness within Young Foreign Language Learners,”
focuses on metalinguistic awareness in early education. This chapter
also advocates the use of an approach which gives teachers the tools
to help students recognize the different linguistic backgrounds of
other students known as “Awakening to Languages” (Chapter 9: 203). The
author believes that explicitly talking about each other’s language
background can increase harmony among students. This is reminiscent of
how Chapter 6 creates discussion activities to bring together L2s and
HLs through explicit discussions of specific topics. A thematic
analysis of recorded classroom conversations and teacher interviews
reveals that students enjoy metalinguistic activities. Their interest
in guessing the meanings of new words they see and imitating new
sounds they hear works to increase their own metalinguistic competency
and to apply techniques to new languages.

The last chapter in Part 3 is Chapter 10, by Emily Bernate,
“Incorporating Lessons on Language Contact for Grammar Instruction in
HL and L2 Mixed Classrooms.” It focuses on how to teach grammar in the
MLC. Bernate identifies differences and challenges for teaching
grammar to HLs and L2s, but also addresses a major similarity they
share. This similarity, known as “mutual intimidation,” refers to how
both groups are anxious about their language skills in the MLC
(Chapter 10: 226). Bernate discusses the importance of teaching
morphological and syntactic variation through a sociolinguistic lens.
She offers a sample lesson, which although it is specific to Spanish
conjugations, can be adapted to work for different languages. She also
shares exam data showing student responses to questions that test
their sociolinguistic knowledge. This chapter serves as an
instructor’s guide for educators interested in improving confidence in
HL and L2 students’ speech, and breaking down insecurities surrounding
language variation and its connection to society.

Part 4, the last part of this volume, starts with Chapter 11, by
Sibhekinkosi Anna Nkomo and Erasmos Charamba, “Translanguaging for
Academic Success: A Strategy for Accessing Disciplinary Discourse in a
Multilingual Undergraduate Classroom.” Through qualitative coding of
students’ verbatim speech from 21 hours of class and personal
interviews, they show that when students engage with course content in
the target language as well as in their home language, there can be an
increase in course content engagement. The researchers found that
encouraging “translanguaging,” that is, the use of two or more
languages (Chapter 11: 254), promotes metalinguistic awareness of
students’ own language and others in the classroom. It also promotes
an equitable playing field and embraces language diversity. Although
this chapter does not focus on HLs, it does advocate for
multilingualism in the classroom, and encourages students to actively
use their home language in class.

Chapter 12, by Anna Krulatz, MaryAnn Christison, and Koeun Park,
“Implementing the Multilingual Approach to Diversity in Education
(MADE) as a Tool for Instructional Design in Mixed-Language
Classrooms,” is slightly reminiscent of earlier chapters which discuss
the uniqueness and the complementary nature that L2s and HLs bestow
upon each other. The teaching model “MADE,” a set of guidelines which
challenges monolingualism in language courses, is introduced in this
chapter before it is applied to a MLC environment (Chapter 12: 274).
The authors show how a sample lesson for the MLC can use MADE to
better serve the multilingual backgrounds of heritage speakers.

The last entry is Chapter 13, by Sandra Martini and Jacopo
Torregrossa, “Developing Compound Awareness by Translanguaging: The
Design of Learning Activities for Multilingual Classrooms.” This
chapter argues for the use of “multilingual didactic activities” in an
early education mixed classroom which foster metalinguistic competence
and support the languages students know (Chapter 13: 303). More
specifically, this chapter is about a learner-centered multilingual
pedagogy which assists students in developing their metalinguistic
awareness of compound formations in English and Italian, as well as
the students’ home languages. The sequence of activities introduced
here starts with students intuitively creating compound words in any
language based on a prompt, followed by students identifying English
and Italian compounds (the languages known to the instructor), and
lastly with students identifying differences in headedness between the
two languages. After this three step process of activating and
identifying, the last step in the compound awareness sequence is
applying the new knowledge of compound formations and classifying
compounds in their home languages. Like Chapter 11, this chapter also
found that translanguaging and metalinguistic awareness complement
each other, both empowering students’ home language and assisting in
promoting literacy.


EVALUATION

This volume puts forth ideas for supporting HLs in mixed language
classrooms. By advocating a more equitable role, this volume suggests
HL best practices can be followed even when the learning environment
is shared with L2s. Both this book and mixed language classrooms are
in existence because of the lack of “institutional support,” both
economic and administrative, of “sufficient enrollment,” and of
“understanding around HLs” (Introduction: 1; Chapter 2: 23; Chapter
10: 224; Chapter 12: 275; and elsewhere). Educational institutions,
especially public universities, often face budget cuts. Such economic
change, as the series’ description mentions, is constant and needs
scholarly input. Although most entries focus on Spanish HLs, the
pedagogical methods presented can be applied to non-Spanish HLs.

The subjects of study for most of this volume are intermediate-level
Spanish language mixed language class students in universities.
However, the pedagogy introduced throughout is universal enough to
apply to any language. Some examples broad enough to be expanded
across languages, and thus not only applicable to Spanish language
classrooms, are Chapters 1 and 12. Chapter 1’s Bi-Directional
Scaffolding theory focuses on empowering HLs and L2s through
recognizing and promoting their respective strengths, which complement
each other. And although the level of strength varies, the tendency
for L2s to possess more metalinguistic knowledge than their HL peers,
or HLs to have better intuition than L2s, is not specific to Spanish.
As for Chapter 12, the Multilingual Approach to Diversity in Education
(MADE) framework is applied to a university level mixed language
classroom teaching Korean, but the MADE framework is not specific to
any one language. Mixed language classrooms teaching any language can
benefit from adapting this method.

In addition to flexible pedagogical methods, this volume also includes
an adaptable workshop which, although it addresses “raciolinguistic
ideologies” in Spanish language programs (Chapter 5: 109), can be
implemented in other language programs as well. HLs are sometimes
stigmatized by educators for various reasons, for example, having
non-standard speech. This is an issue seen across languages and is not
language specific. Thus, the instructions for the workshop can be
applied to any language department, much like how many of the
pedagogical innovations in this volume can also be adapted.

One main goal of this volume is to “collect current developments,
challenges, trends and solutions in the much less studied field of
mixed learning pedagogy, which addresses the needs of HL and L2
students in a shared environment” (Introduction: 1). There are
chapters which at times seem to stray from this goal. Chapter 7 and
Chapter 13 make no mention of heritage learners, but they do provide
solutions for multilingual learners. They promote language diversity
and challenge traditional notions of monolingualism, but their
students are not HLs. Chapter 11 is another example of an entry where
teaching methods for students who speak different languages are
presented, but HLs are not addressed. Such chapters in this volume may
be caused by the term Mixed Classroom.

Even though the editors only define mixed language classrooms, they
leave it up to the reader to infer mixed classrooms. The definition
they give for mixed language classrooms is “learning environments in
which heritage learners (HL) and second language learners (L2) are
concurrently exposed to language learning in the same physical space”
(Introduction: 1). If this book addresses the needs of HL and L2
students in a shared environment, then chapters such as 7, 11, and 13
should be viewed as pursuing a different goal. They empower
multilingual students, a category which HLs are a part of, but the
classroom environments are not language courses where HLs and L2s are
integrated. However, these chapters are still appropriate for anyone
who teaches students from different disciplines with diverse language
backgrounds, because they provide socially conscious approaches to
teaching and learning experiences for multilingual students in mixed
classrooms.

There are also a few entries which seem to be created for mixed
language classrooms but are more focused on L2s. In the beginning of
Chapter 2, Benatti discusses his experience with promoting students’
cultural and linguistic differences in his mixed language classrooms.
He mentions that giving students exercises which focus on various
dialectal words promotes students’ identity and highlights the lexical
and morphological richness of Italian dialects (Chapter 2). This
discussion sets the reader up early in Chapter 2 to expect some sort
of activity later in the chapter which includes dialect. However, none
of the activities in this chapter foster HL or L2 engagement through
dialect or even mention language varieties. Additionally, although the
author addresses specific needs of HLs, the activities and proposed
solutions address the needs of L2s more than HLs, because they ignore
the suggestion that HLs are challenged in different ways. For
instance, when discussing specific “errors” of HLs and L2s, Benatti
notes that previous literature reports that HLs, in comparison to L2s,
have fewer difficulties with regular morphology (Chapter 2: 32). He
even confirms this claim with data from his own corpus analysis.
However, the activities he proposes and recommends for educators focus
on commonly used derivational suffixes (Chapter 2).

Both Benatti’s analysis and past scholarly research findings suggest
HLs do not need to focus on regular morphology, but the activities
introduced in his chapter do. Benatti argues that Italian morphology
is difficult, saying “derivation is complex both for HLLs (refers here
to HLs) and L2 speakers, so all these activities are useful for both”
(Chapter 2: 44). But contextual information is not sufficient to quite
understand this statement. Although Benatti does not craft his
pedagogical methods based on the needs of HLs, this chapter still
presents new data on HLs. Educators can take this chapter’s beginning
section, which addresses the specific needs of HLs, and then build
activities which reflect the needs of HLs.

Overall, this book is suitable for anyone who is looking for new
advances to teaching both HLs and L2s in classrooms together. This
volume is one of the first to present research and pedagogical
innovations in mixed language classrooms (Introduction). It promotes
pedagogical research and tangible tools which give HLs the attention
they need, while also considering the needs of L2s. However, sometimes
the methods introduced may not be feasible for everyone to implement.
For example, Chapter 6’s Critical Service Learning requires a
community of speakers of the HL language to exist in the surrounding
community, which may not be possible depending on location. At the
very least, this book can inform educators on best practices to serve
bilingual and multilingual groups. From the content reflection
questions at the end of each chapter, which also explicitly identify
next steps for future research, to the appendixes filled with teaching
materials, this volume is a valuable contribution for both researchers
and instructors. Anyone interested in research based pedagogy for HLs
and L2s in mixed language classrooms will find this book to be a
resource for their own scholarly and instructional endeavors.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER

Brendan Dowling is a PhD student in the Asian Languages and Cultures
department at the University of Wisconsin–Madison studying Chinese and
Linguistics. Brendan’s current research focuses on how different
groups of speakers, especially heritage speakers, perceive stress and
tone in Standard Chinese. He also has interests in critical pedagogies
such as Hip Hop Pedagogy, which he integrates in language and
humanities classrooms.



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